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14 Wall Street

From Alfawiki
Bankers Trust Company
Company typeFinancial services
IndustryBanking
Founded1903
FateMoved headquarters and sold 14 Wall Street building in 1987
Headquarters
New York City
,
United States
Area served
United States
ProductsBanking, trust services, foreign departments

14 Wall Street, initially known as the Bankers Trust Company Building, is a skyscraper situated at the corner where Wall Street meets Nassau Street within Manhattan's Financial District. The structure rises to a height of , encompassing 32 functional floors. The original tower occupies the southeastern portion of the plot, with a lower annex enveloping it.

Built between 1910 and 1912 on the sites formerly occupied by the Stevens Building and the Gillender Building, the edifice was crafted by Trowbridge & Livingston in a neoclassical design to serve as Bankers Trust’s main office. From 1931 to 1933, a 25-story extension featuring Art Deco elements, designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, replaced three existing structures. After Bankers Trust completed new buildings in 1962 and 1974, it gradually moved staff from 14 Wall Street and ultimately sold this property in 1987.

The tower is notable for its seven-story pyramidal roof, which draws inspiration from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Originally, the interior included advanced facilities; Bankers Trust occupied the first three floors for its headquarters, while leasing out upper levels to various tenants. As a significant component of Manhattan’s early 20th-century skyline, 14 Wall Street played a key role in shaping Bankers Trust’s corporate identity. It was recognized as a New York City landmark in 1997 and is part of the Wall Street Historic District, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.

Site

Located within Manhattan's Financial District, 14 Wall Street is bounded by Nassau Street on the east, Wall Street to the south, and Pine Street to the north. The parcel extends approximately along Wall Street, along Nassau Street, and along Pine Street, covering a total area of . Nearby notable buildings include the Equitable Building, Federal Hall National Memorial, 23 Wall Street, the New York Stock Exchange Building, 1 Wall Street, and 100 Broadway. The vicinity is also served by an entrance to the Broad Street station.

The original structure occupies the southeastern corner of this site, which was previously occupied by the Stevens and Gillender structures. The Stevens Building was developed by the Sampson family in 1880 at 12–14 Wall Street and stood until its demolition in 1910. Next to it was the Gillender Building, a 20-story structure approximately tall, completed in 1897 by Helen L. Gillender Asinari and demolished in 1910. Together these plots created an almost square footprint measuring around .

The annex occupies the rest of the site with an L-shaped configuration. Prior to its construction, this portion contained three buildings: the seven-story Astor Building at 10–12 Wall Street; the Hanover National Building at 5–11 Nassau Street, built in 1903 with 21 stories; and a 10-story building at 7 Pine Street located northwest of the original tower. These acquisitions enabled Bankers Trust to expand its headquarters footprint effectively.

Architecture

Rising to an approximate height of , 14 Wall Street comprises 32 functional floors above ground, crowned by a seven-story pyramidal roof that contains seven levels dedicated to storage. The structure also features four basement floors, with the uppermost basement partially exposed above ground level. Initially created by the firm Trowbridge & Livingston for Bankers Trust, construction took place from 1910 through 1912. Subsequently, a north and west extension reaching about was designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and erected between 1931 and 1933.

The building’s roof, clad in granite and adorned with Greek architectural elements, represented a significant stylistic shift from earlier designs. The architects intentionally chose this aesthetic for its "simplicity and grace, as well as its supreme dignity and seriousness," which suited the building's purpose and prominent location. Influences for the design included the Erechtheion, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, and classical Macedonian architecture.

Form

The initial tower rises 39 stories in total, featuring 32 floors topped by a seven-story pyramidal roof inspired by both the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus and Venice’s St Mark's Campanile. This approach was pioneering for skyscraper design at that time, substituting conventional cupolas or spires with a more monumental form.

An annex of 25 stories envelops the western and northern facades, incorporating setbacks at various levels along Wall Street and Nassau Street, as well as a light court positioned above the eleventh floor on Pine Street.

Original building

Approximately of granite sourced from New England covers the facade. The tower is segmented into four parts: a five-story base, a midsection spanning 21 stories, an upper section comprising six floors including a penthouse, and finally the roof. Initially, the base consisted of four stories but was expanded with an additional floor during renovations between 1931 and 1933. Each side contains five window bays with two windows per floor; notably, the western midsection employs brick rather than granite cladding. Early window frames were made of wood but were later overlaid with metal.

Because adjacent skyscrapers limited visibility at street level, the lower floors were crafted with elaborate detailing. The basement and first floor together form a stylobate that supports a colonnade extending from the second through fourth floors. The basement facade is smooth-faced, while rusticated blocks characterize the first floor, featuring an entrance porch at 16 Wall Street facing Wall Street itself. Greek fluted columns and molded belt courses compose the colonnade, exemplifying understated elegance. The addition of the third story introduced new spandrel panels to separate what were originally double-height windows. The fifth floor completes the base with a pronounced cornice embellished with lion heads and rosette motifs.

The midsection, covering floors six through twenty-six, primarily consists of buff-colored granite punctuated by vertical piers dividing each bay; grooved panels accentuate corner sections to enhance visual interest. A band course runs just above the sixth floor; otherwise, this portion maintains minimal ornamentation.

From floors twenty-seven to thirty-one, engaged Ionic columns in antis are present; colonnades on the north, east, and south facades are recessed behind these columns while the west facade projects outward. Although initial plans called for paired columns to convey greater massiveness, only single columns were ultimately installed. Rectangular windows appear on floors thirty and thirty-one separated by a cornice line; floor thirty-two contains the penthouse topped with a molded cornice.

The granite roof rises to a height of , resting on a square base measuring . Access is provided via approximately two dozen steps each exceeding three feet in height and one foot in depth. A smokestack six feet in diameter ventilates smoke from within the structure.

Annex

The annex's exterior base is clad in granite, while limestone adorns the upper floors, harmonizing with the original structure's "solid and robust architecture." On the Wall Street side, the facade incorporates setbacks on lower levels, with window placements matching those of the initial building. The four-story podium features a rusticated ground floor and a colonnade spanning the second through fourth floors. Above this, broad ribbed piers in a modern style rise, interspersed with aluminum spandrel panels that create vertical striping.

Facades facing Pine Street and Nassau Street showcase elements of Modern Classic and Art Deco design. Due to differences in lot boundaries, the annex extends approximately 16 feet further into the street compared to the original edifice. Access points include a main entrance on Nassau Street and service doors along Pine Street. Decorative details on these sides encompass carved motifs, curved piers at the base, wrought-iron gates and grilles, as well as an eagle sculpture positioned above the Nassau Street doorway. The base spans two stories (not counting a partially visible basement), with upper-level treatments resembling those on Wall Street.

Structural features

At 14 Wall Street, the foundation consists of caissons driven around the perimeter down to bedrock roughly 65 feet beneath street level. These caissons were filled with concrete to form a watertight cofferdam approximately 6 to 7 feet thick. This approach effectively addressed quicksand challenges and maximized basement space by eliminating foundation piers within that area. Temporary timber trusses reinforced the cofferdam against intense pressure and were capped by a 3-foot-thick concrete slab coated with waterproof cement.

The building’s steel framework comprises over 8,000 short tons of steel. Heavy trusses support the exterior walls, enabling a column-free second floor; additional substantial bracing is located on the fourth floor. Four massive trusses—two each on the fifth and twenty-ninth floors—measure 12 feet in thickness and weigh about 50 short tons apiece. The remainder of the structure utilizes conventional girder-and-column steel framing. The frame includes roughly 39 tiers of beams ascending to a height of 537 feet above ground, supported by 36 columns carrying an estimated dead load totaling 47,102 short tons. The tallest columns reach 500 feet in length and support loads up to 2,200 short tons.

Interior

Construction of 14 Wall Street prioritized fire resistance by substituting wooden trim with metal components and installing a sprinkler system on the roof.

Bankers Trust offices

Bankers Trust occupied basement levels A and B along with the first, second, and fourth floors. These spaces accommodated banking, trust, and foreign departments, all designed in a pure classical style featuring light-colored bronze metalwork and Italian marble lining within principal banking areas. Modular furnishings enabled adaptable expansion; each department was equipped with cork flooring and telephone connections. Pneumatic tube systems facilitated document transfers between departments and an attorney’s office located on the twenty-sixth floor.

The second floor housed the main banking hall containing tellers’ windows alongside trust offices. This area was designed in Greek style with ceilings reaching 27 feet high and walls clad in Tavernelle marble; teller counters aligned directly with exterior windows. A small chamber was allocated for Henry Pomeroy Davison of the executive committee. Three elevators served office floors up to level four; notably, elevator shafts featured marble cladding at lower levels while upper sections were constructed from plate glass. The fourth floor contained both boardroom facilities and clerical offices, finished with Circassian walnut paneling and furnished with a table seating thirty-eight.

A broad staircase on the Wall Street side provided access to the first floor, originally Bankers Trust’s principal entrance. The lobby included a bronze gate symbolizing key capitalist sectors such as metallurgy, shipping, construction, power generation, agriculture, manufacturing, and mining, accompanied by allegorical murals.

Between 1931 and 1933, renovations transformed the first-floor banking hall into officers’ seating areas elevated to match the new extension’s level. The originally double-height second story was subdivided to create an additional third floor. The expansion at 16 Wall Street introduced a T-shaped banking hall measuring 10,000 square feet featuring squared columns clad in Oregon myrtle wood beneath a coved ceiling rising 27 feet high.

Subterranean Levels

The structure includes four basement floors, with two dedicated to Bankers Trust's secure safe-deposit vault. Referred to by The Bankers Magazine as "the strongest vault in the world," it spanned , weighed , and housed 160 safe-deposit compartments; notably, its door alone had a mass of . The vault's walls were thick, constructed from concrete reinforced with "shock and drill-proof steel," engineered to withstand explosives and cutting instruments. The vault’s structural reinforcement was so formidable that any impact causing disturbance would result in the building’s collapse. Inside, aisles equipped with combination locks required the presence of two officers to access each safe.

Originally, the basement also contained a mail carriers' station for tenant deliveries. The third basement level accommodated ventilation equipment, while the fourth level housed power generation and steam plant facilities.

Upper Floors

The upper stories were leased to various tenants and featured concrete flooring alongside walls finished with marble, plaster, and terracotta. Fire safety measures incorporated metal doors, window sashes, and trim crafted to imitate mahogany. Each floor was equipped with bronze mailboxes linked to mail chutes. A continuous staircase with 531 steps extends from the third up to the 29th floor. Initially, access was provided from Wall Street through a passage connecting to the Hanover Bank Building; a Pine Street entrance was introduced during the 1931–1933 expansion. The annex lobby was designed in an Art Deco style, with floor heights aligned to those of the original structure, creating uninterrupted slabs covering approximately each; upper floors of the annex feature ceilings reaching 13 feet.

Elevator service includes eleven units for rental areas: five express elevators operating nonstop between the lobby and floors 16 and above, five local elevators serving lower levels, one relief elevator servicing all floors, plus an additional elevator dedicated to floors 30 through 38. Elevator lobbies are adorned with Botticino marble walls and travertine flooring. As of 2023, the building contains a total of 34 elevators.

The highest occupied floor below the roof—currently the 32nd floor—was originally intended as a private apartment for J. P. Morgan but was converted into an observation deck amid antitrust litigation involving Bankers Trust. Measuring , it featured 36 windows and included a balcony enclosed with glass and iron railings. Despite an investment of $250,000 on interior furnishings and finishes, it remained unfurnished at its opening. Allegations that Morgan used this space as a personal retreat lack substantiation. Between 1997 and 2006, this floor served as an upscale French restaurant named The 14 Wall Street. Above the roof lie 47 storage rooms as well as facilities for records, sprinkler systems, water tanks, and elevator machinery.

Background and Property Acquisition

Founded in 1903 to facilitate commercial banks' entry into trusts and estates management,[1] Bankers Trust initially operated from two basement rooms at Liberty and Washington Streets with eight employees.[2] Rapid growth led to leasing space in the Gillender Building due to its proximity to the New York Stock Exchange.[3] With J. P. Morgan serving on its board,[3] Bankers Trust sought to establish a permanent presence at the heart of America's financial district.[4]

In the late 1900s, financial institutions including Bank of Montreal, Fourth National Bank of New York, and Germania Life Insurance Company acquired land on Wall and Nassau Streets.[5] Negotiations for acquiring the Gillender Building began in April 1909,[6] initially involving an 84-year lease on the adjacent seven-story Stevens Building for $1.5 million.[5] Plans called for a 16-story L-shaped office tower surrounding the Gillender Building designed by George B. Post.[7]

By November 1909, Bankers Trust secured rights to purchase the Gillender Building from Helen Gillender.[6] Manhattan Trust bought it for $1.5 million—a record-setting land price in New York City—and then resold it to Bankers Trust for $1.25 million,[8] while retaining long-term leasing rights over certain areas.[1] Reports indicated possible collusion between Manhattan Trust and Bankers Trust in this transaction.[9] Simultaneously, Bankers Trust acquired majority ownership in Guaranty Trust Company, sharing several board members,[1][10] though Guaranty Trust opted to construct its own headquarters rather than relocate.[11] In addition, Bankers Trust merged with Mercantile Trust Company,[1][12], but Mercantile’s headquarters suffered fire damage in January 1912 affecting building plans.[1] In February 1912, Bankers Trust absorbed Manhattan Trust—both entities under Morgan’s control—citing geographical proximity as justification for the merger.[13][14]

Construction and Initial Usage

Bankers Trust sought to optimize the site by erecting a structure taller than the existing Gillender and Stevens buildings.[15][7] In 1909, the company invited design proposals from four architectural firms: Carrère and Hastings, Francis H. Kimball, Trowbridge and Livingston, and Warren and Wetmore.[7][16] The commission was awarded to Trowbridge and Livingston, who submitted their plans to the New York City Department of Buildings on April 20, 1910.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

Original Structure

Demolition of the Gillender Building commenced in April 1910,[8] marking it as the first skyscraper to be razed to allow construction of a taller building.[17] Simultaneously, the Stevens Building was also dismantled,[8] with both sites cleared by June of the same year.[18]Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Foundation construction encountered difficulties due to quicksand, overlapping supports, and the proximity of adjacent buildings.[19] The steel skeleton began rising in November 1910,[20] reaching street level by December.[21] Installation of the facade started in February 1911,[22] advancing at a pace of three and a half stories weekly under contractor Marc Eidlitz & Son.[20] The structure was topped out on June 14, 1911,[21] with stone cladding largely finished by mid-September, aside from a slight modification to the pyramid design.[22]

Bankers Trust occupied the basement levels along with the first three floors,[23] while leasing the remaining upper stories to various tenants.[24][25] By May 1911, significant office space had been leased at $4 per square foot—higher than nearby properties due to its close location to the New York Stock Exchange.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Occupancy reached approximately 65% by November.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name A remarkable occurrence prior to opening was a parachute descent from the building's 32nd floor in April 1912.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name

14 Wall Street officially commenced operations on May 1, 1912,[26] with Bankers Trust relocating there on May 20.[27] At launch, around 85% of the office space was leased.[25][27] Although J.P. Morgan & Co. initially planned to occupy portions including a penthouse residence,[28] these intentions were abandoned shortly after opening.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name Following congressional investigation into Bankers Trust's activities by the Pujo Committee,[1][29] J.P. Morgan & Co. proceeded to develop their own premises at 23 Wall Street.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name By 1917, Bankers Trust had transformed into a comprehensive banking institution and ranked among the wealthiest financial entities nationally.[24] With its workforce expanding more than fourfold since its initial occupancy in 1912, Bankers Trust extended into additional offices within the Astor and Hanover Bank buildings during the 1920s.[16]

Annex

Bankers Trust initiated its land purchases in 1919, acquiring the Astor Building in June followed by the property at 7 Pine Street two months afterward. In September 1929, the Hanover Bank Building was added to their holdings, granting Bankers Trust control over the eastern portion of the block bordered by Broadway, Wall, Pine, and Nassau Streets. Architect Richmond Shreve remarked that the existing arrangement "[fell] short of a true expression of the [company's] position." By January 1931, Shreve's firm, Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, had designed plans for an annex and submitted a $5.5 million proposal to the New York City Department of Buildings. The Thompson–Starrett Company was contracted as the general builder.

Construction commenced in May 1931, with personnel temporarily relocated while the Hanover Bank, Astor, and 7 Pine Street structures were demolished by June. The site clearance involved blasting with dynamite, which caused damage to surrounding buildings including the First National Bank of New York headquarters (currently Citibank), itself demolished later that year. In April 1932, First National Bank filed a lawsuit against Bankers Trust and its contractors seeking $881,500 in damages from excavation-related harm; after a legal battle lasting two years, it was awarded $237,500 in January 1934. Bankers Trust was subsequently absolved of any further construction-related liabilities.

By November 1931, work schedules were adjusted to two five-hour shifts each day to double productivity and job completion rates. The 25-story annex was finalized in 1932, enabling employees to move back into 14 Wall Street. That October, brokerage firm Brown, Wheelock, Harris & Co. was engaged to lease space vacated in the original building. Renovations included repositioning main entrances and adding an additional third floor, completed by March 1933. These modifications expanded rentable space at 14 Wall Street threefold.

The annex officially opened on April 10, 1933, with Bankers Trust occupying seven floors within the new section.

Bankers Trust occupancy

By 1935, Bankers Trust Company’s assets had reached $1 billion. Reflecting its robust financial status, in 1943 the bank acquired ownership of the land beneath 14 Wall Street from the Sampson family, replacing the former Stevens Building that had been demolished. The building underwent modernization including installation of air-conditioning in 1955. During this era, Bankers Trust grew through mergers and opened a second headquarters at 280 Park Avenue in 1962 while maintaining operations at 14 Wall Street. The facade of the latter building received cleaning during the mid-1960s. Following completion of One Bankers Trust Plaza in 1974, numerous employees relocated from 14 Wall Street and other locations, leaving floors eight through twenty-three—approximately 350,000 square feet—vacant; these spaces were gradually leased out to various tenants.

Bankers Trust retained ownership of 14 Wall Street until its sale in 1987 to 14 Wall Street Associates. Subsequent ownership transfers occurred to 14 Wall Street Realty in 1991 and General Electric Investment in 1992. GE Investment invested $7 million toward renovations. Although Bankers Trust maintained a lease agreement through 2004 with an option for cancellation in 1995, it vacated the premises by 1992. Afterward, Manufacturers Hanover Corporation and Chemical Bank occupied areas formerly used by Bankers Trust.

Later Occupancy

In August 1997, Boston Properties acquired 14 Wall Street for $320 million. By November of that year, the 32nd floor had been transformed into an upscale French dining establishment named The 14 Wall Street. Beginning in 1998, the banking hall tenant of the annex, Chase Bank, lent the space to the Skyscraper Museum for a one-year period, during which an exhibit focused on the Empire State Building was presented. A consortium led by Laurence Gluck and Arthur Wrubel purchased 14 Wall Street from General Electric Investment in 1999. Subsequently, the former banking hall was repurposed as an Equinox Fitness center in December 2000, featuring a mezzanine level designed by the Rockwell Group.

By 2004, Gluck had obtained full ownership of the property. In 2005, Leviev Boymelgreen acquired the building for $215 million. Although there were initial plans to convert the entire structure into luxury condominiums, these were scaled back in 2006 to only transform the lower floors into residential units. The 14 Wall Street restaurant ceased operations early that same year. In early 2007, Leviev Boymelgreen agreed to sell the building to Cushman & Wakefield for $325 million; however, it was ultimately purchased by the Carlyle Group and Capstone Equities. Their acquisition included plans for a $50 million renovation project, allocating $5 million specifically for restoring the lobby.

In 2012, control of the majority stake transferred to Ukrainian fertilizer magnate Alexander Rovt through a $303 million all-cash transaction; as part of this agreement, Rovt settled existing debts on the property. At that time, a portion of the building remained vacant, with three prospective tenants negotiating leases covering approximately two-thirds of this space. Following renovations overseen by Rovt, occupancy rose from 70% to 95% by 2014, securing long-term agreements with tenants such as office operator Regus. After investing $60 million in upgrades, occupancy reached 90% by early 2016. Initially managed by Cushman & Wakefield, leasing responsibilities were transferred to the CBRE Group in 2017.

Tenants

Significance

Upon its completion, 14 Wall Street held the distinction of being the tallest bank headquarters worldwide and ranked among New York City's highest skyscrapers. Together with the neighboring Singer Tower, it created a prominent "Gateway of New York" visible from Manhattan’s waterfront areas. Cassier's Magazine commended its "elegant and impressive appearance, devoid of excessive ornamentation," although it erroneously associated the design with Egyptian pyramids. The building came to represent advancement and solidity; Bankers Trust prominently featured 14 Wall Street in marketing materials as a "tower of strength" well into the 1980s. In 1929, Charles Phelps Cushing observed that its stepped pyramidal roof had become a symbol of contemporary urban vitality.

The building’s distinctive silhouette remained iconic even after the annex was constructed, becoming emblematic of capitalism and Wall Street through various media including photography, cinema, and exhibitions such as the 1915 Panama–Pacific International Exposition. Architectural historian Christopher Gray noted the striking juxtaposition between 14 Wall Street’s soaring height and the adjacent low-rise one-story structure at 23 Wall Street—both designed by Trowbridge & Livingston for J.P. Morgan.

The pyramidal roof design at 14 Wall Street influenced numerous structures throughout Lower Manhattan, including 26 Broadway, 40 Wall Street, 60 Wall Street, the annex at 195 Broadway, and the annex to the Jewish Museum. This architectural motif also inspired buildings beyond New York City such as Cincinnati’s Union Central Life Insurance Company Building, Chicago’s Metropolitan Tower, and Minneapolis’s Foshay Tower. This style marked a trend toward skyscraper tops resembling temples or mausoleums.

In January 1997, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission officially designated 14 Wall Street as a city landmark. Later in 2007, it was recognized as a contributing property within the Wall Street Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

See also

Sources

External links

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NYCL p. 2
  2. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Landmarks Preservation Commission
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Ward Zunz p. 146
  4. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Ward Zunz p. 147
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt19090707
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt19091216
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named The Bankers Magazine 1912 p. 45
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt19100410
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt19100102
  10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Chernow
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named p574766862
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Equitable Life Sold Mercantile Stock
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Bankers' Absorbs Manhattan
  14. ↑ New-York Tribune
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NYCL p. 3
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NYCL p. 4
  17. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt19100430
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named The Bankers Magazine 1912 p. 46
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named LC p. 379
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named The Bankers Magazine 1912 p. 47
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named p509343224
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt19111203
  23. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Willis 1995
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nycland
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named wsj19120420
  26. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named p90514112
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :3
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :4
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named nyt20070121
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