Benedict Arnold

Benedict Arnold
Born	Norwich, Connecticut Colony
Died	14 June 1801(1801-06-14) (aged 60)
Occupation(s)	Military officer, merchant
Known for	Defection from American Continental Army to British Army during the American Revolutionary War

Benedict Arnold (January 14, 1741 – June 14, 1801) was a military officer originally from America who later served under the British during the American Revolutionary War. He began as a major general in the American Continental Army but defected to the British side in 1780. Known for earning the trust of General George Washington, Arnold was in command of West Point and intended to hand it over to the British. His conspiracy was uncovered in September 1780, prompting him to escape to British-controlled territory. Afterward, he was appointed brigadier general in the British Army and led the American Legion, actively engaging against his former comrades. In the United States, his name became emblematic of treason.

Arnold was born in the Colony of Connecticut and initially worked as a merchant before joining American forces near Boston. He earned distinction by capturing Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and delaying British forces at the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in 1776, which helped secure time for New York’s defenses. His command during the Battle of Ridgefield resulted in a promotion to major general. Furthermore, Arnold contributed significantly during the Siege of Fort Stanwix and the crucial 1777 Battles of Saratoga, where he suffered leg wounds that kept him out of action for several years.

Feeling overlooked by the Second Continental Congress for promotions, Arnold accused others of taking undue credit for his accomplishments. Although cleared of serious accusations, Congress discovered he was heavily indebted due to an extravagant lifestyle. While in Philadelphia, Arnold mingled with Loyalists and married into Peggy Shippen’s family, who maintained close connections with British Major John André, head of British intelligence in New York. Historians regard Shippen as a key figure who facilitated Arnold’s defection through covert correspondence with André.

The British promised £20,000 for control of West Point. In July 1780, Washington appointed Arnold as commander of the fort. Arnold’s scheme to surrender it was revealed when American troops captured André carrying incriminating documents; André was executed, and Arnold fled.

Upon joining the British, Arnold received a brigadier general commission with an annual pension of £360 plus a lump sum exceeding £6,000. He led British raids on locations including Richmond and New London, Connecticut—his hometown region—causing significant destruction. Additionally, he commanded forces at the Battles of Blandford and Groton Heights. During winter 1782, Arnold and Shippen relocated to London where they were received by King George III and Tory supporters but met suspicion from Whigs and many officers. In 1787, he moved to New Brunswick colony to operate a merchant venture with his sons but faced unpopularity and returned permanently to London in 1791, where he died ten years later.

Early life

Benedict Arnold entered the world on January 14, 1741, in Norwich within the Connecticut Colony as the second child among six siblings born to Benedict Arnold III and Hannah Waterman King. He was the fourth family member named after his great-grandfather Benedict Arnold I, an early governor of Rhode Island. Only he and his sister Hannah survived into adulthood; the rest succumbed early due to yellow fever. Through his maternal grandmother, Arnold traced lineage back to John Lothropp, an ancestor shared by six U.S. presidents.

Arnold’s father was a prosperous entrepreneur which placed their family among Norwich’s social elite. At age ten, Arnold attended a private school in nearby Canterbury with intentions to pursue studies at Yale College. However, following his siblings’ deaths and his father’s deteriorating health compounded by alcoholism, their financial situation declined. By fourteen, private education became unaffordable. Thanks to his mother’s relatives, he secured a seven-year apprenticeship under cousins Daniel and Joshua Lathrop who managed a thriving apothecary and general store in Norwich.

Arnold maintained a close bond with his mother until her passing in 1759. Afterward, his father’s alcoholism intensified. Arnold took on responsibility for supporting both his father and younger sister. His father experienced multiple arrests related to public intoxication before passing away in 1761.

French and Indian War

In 1755, Arnold attempted to enlist in the Connecticut provincial militia amid the French and Indian War, but his mother denied him permission. By 1757, at the age of 16, he successfully joined and proceeded toward Albany, New York, near Lake George. The French had laid siege to Fort William Henry; due to reports of brutal acts committed by their Native American allies, Arnold’s unit withdrew after just thirteen days of service. Allegations of desertion in 1758 rest on inconclusive proof.

Colonial merchant

Arnold launched his commercial endeavors in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in New Haven, Connecticut, with backing from the Lathrop family. He rapidly grew his enterprise, clearing his debts to the Lathrops by 1763 and buying back the family property to sell it for a profit. In 1764, he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock, obtaining three trading vessels and developing a lucrative trade network with the West Indies.

During Arnold’s frequent travels throughout New England and voyages between Quebec and the West Indies—often captaining his own ships—he entrusted his sister Hannah with managing his apothecary business. Stories suggest he engaged in a duel with a British naval officer in Honduras following an insult, although this account remains disputed.

The enactment of the Sugar Act 1764 and Stamp Act 1765 imposed significant limitations on colonial commerce. Arnold opposed these laws and aligned himself with the Sons of Liberty, championing resistance against Parliamentary interference. Despite initial reservations, he persisted in trading openly, risking accusations of smuggling. Facing financial difficulties, Arnold accumulated debts totaling £16,000 and encountered rumors of bankruptcy, which led him to initiate legal proceedings against creditors. In January 1767, he was penalized for disorderly behavior after confronting an alleged informant; however, public support likely mitigated the severity of his punishment.

On February 22, 1767, Arnold wed Margaret Mansfield, daughter of New Haven sheriff Samuel Mansfield and a fellow member of the Masonic lodge. Their offspring included Benedict (born 1768), Richard (born 1769), and Henry (born 1772). Margaret passed away in June 1775 while Arnold was stationed at Fort Ticonderoga. Throughout Margaret’s lifetime, Hannah maintained considerable influence over the household. Arnold’s alliance with Mansfield offered both business assistance and protection from creditors.

Arnold was overseas in the West Indies during the March 1770 Boston Massacre. He reacted with shock and called for a firm American response to British provocations.

Boston Siege and Capture of Fort Ticonderoga

Arnold entered the conflict as a captain within the Connecticut militia, elected in March 1775. His unit advanced to support the Siege of Boston following the Battles of Lexington and Concord. He suggested to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety the strategic capture of Fort Ticonderoga, which was minimally guarded. Elevated to colonel on May 3, 1775, Arnold collaborated with Ethan Allen to seize Fort Ticonderoga. Subsequently, he led an assault on Fort Saint-Jean along the Richelieu River. When a Connecticut militia contingent arrived in June, disputes over command of the fort prompted Arnold to resign his commission from Massachusetts. During his return journey, he discovered that his wife had passed away earlier that month.

Campaign in Quebec

The Second Continental Congress sanctioned an invasion of Quebec, partly influenced by Arnold's recommendations, yet he was overlooked for overall command. He proposed to George Washington a secondary expedition targeting Quebec City through Maine’s wilderness. Commissioned as a colonel in the Continental Army, Arnold departed Cambridge in September 1775 with approximately 1,100 troops. After enduring a harsh march with significant casualties, he reached Quebec City by November. Joined by Richard Montgomery’s forces, Arnold participated in the assault on December 31, during which Montgomery was killed and Arnold sustained serious injuries. For his valor, he was promoted to brigadier general but oversaw an ineffective siege until Major General David Wooster replaced him in April 1776.

Arnold then assumed command of Montreal’s military forces until British reinforcements arrived at Quebec in May, compelling a retreat. He managed the Continental Army’s rear guard during withdrawal from Saint-Jean and supervised construction of a naval fleet on Lake Champlain, which suffered defeat at the Battle of Valcour Island in October 1776. His efforts delayed British progress toward Fort Ticonderoga until 1777.

Throughout this time, Arnold secured support from influential figures such as Washington, Philip Schuyler, and Horatio Gates, yet also made numerous adversaries within military circles and Congress. A contentious conflict with Moses Hazen, commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment, nearly resulted in Arnold’s arrest due to counteraccusations during Hazen’s court martial at Fort Ticonderoga. Furthermore, disputes with politically connected officers John Brown and James Easton generated persistent allegations against Arnold’s conduct. Brown notably circulated a handbill accusing Arnold of placing personal financial gain above patriotic duty.

Operations in Rhode Island and Philadelphia

Following the British occupation of Newport in December 1776, Washington tasked Arnold with defending Rhode Island, where local militias were inadequately equipped for counteroffensive action. In February 1777, Arnold became aware that Congress had denied him promotion to major general. Washington declined Arnold's resignation offer and advocated for his advancement to retain vital officers amid politically driven promotions.

While traveling to Philadelphia to discuss his career prospects, Arnold received intelligence about a British advance on a supply depot in Danbury, Connecticut. He coordinated militia responses alongside Generals Wooster and Gold Selleck Silliman, then led troops at the Battle of Ridgefield, where he sustained additional wounds.

In Philadelphia, Arnold's leadership at Ridgefield combined with Wooster's death resulted in his promotion to major general; however, his rank remained subordinate to others promoted earlier. On July 11, amidst ongoing rank disputes and news of the fall of Fort Ticonderoga, Arnold tendered his resignation. Washington rejected it and directed him northward to aid in defensive operations.

Saratoga campaign

Arnold reached Fort Edward on July 24. On August 13, General Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 soldiers to break the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Employing a clever deception, Arnold sent an Indigenous messenger to British Brigadier-General Barry St. Leger's encampment, falsely indicating that a much larger army was approaching. This tactic led St. Leger's Indigenous allies to desert, compelling the British to lift the siege.

Following this, Arnold returned to the Hudson River, where General Gates had taken command after retreating to a camp south of Stillwater. Arnold earned distinction in both engagements of the Battles of Saratoga, despite being removed from direct field command by Gates after the initial battle due to disputes that culminated in a heated confrontation. During the second battle, Arnold defied orders and spearheaded assaults on British fortifications, during which he sustained a serious leg injury. Burgoyne capitulated ten days later on October 17, 1777. In recognition of his bravery, Congress reinstated Arnold's seniority, although he interpreted this gesture more as sympathy for his wound than genuine acknowledgment.

Arnold spent several months recuperating from his injury; his leg was crudely set rather than amputated, resulting in it being shorter by approximately . He rejoined the army at Valley Forge in May 1778, where soldiers who had served under him greeted him with great enthusiasm. At Valley Forge, he also took part in the earliest documented oath of allegiance affirming loyalty to the United States.

Residence in Philadelphia

Following the British evacuation of Philadelphia in June 1778, Washington appointed Arnold as the military commander of the city. Historian John Shy later described this appointment as one of Washington's poorest judgments due to Arnold’s propensity for conflict and lack of political finesse—traits ill-suited for managing a politically divided city recently occupied by enemy forces.

Arnold attempted to leverage his new position for financial gain by engaging in commercial ventures tied to wartime supply chains and his official authority. While such activities were not uncommon among officers, local political figures like Joseph Reed collected evidence suggesting corrupt practices on Arnold’s part. Seeking vindication, Arnold requested a court martial to clear his reputation, lamenting in May 1779 that despite his sacrifices and injuries, he was met with ingratitude.

In Philadelphia society, Arnold lived extravagantly and maintained a high social profile. In the summer of 1778, he became acquainted with Peggy Shippen, daughter of Loyalist Judge Edward Shippen IV, who had engaged in trade with British forces during their occupation. Peggy had previously been courted by Major John André. The couple married on April 8, 1779. Despite military prohibitions, Shippen and her associates maintained communication across enemy lines, occasionally using merchants such as Joseph Stansbury as intermediaries.

Plotting to change sides

Scholars identify multiple causes behind Arnold's treason, with varying opinions on their relative importance. According to W. D. Wetherell, Arnold’s betrayal can be largely attributed to:

Wetherell encapsulates Arnold’s defection as stemming from marrying "the wrong person."

Arnold’s battlefield wounds and loss of his Connecticut enterprises contributed significantly to his growing resentment. He harbored bitterness toward rivals who received promotions ahead of him and honors he believed were unjustly withheld. Prolonged conflicts with Philadelphia civil authorities culminated in a court martial over minor allegations regarding profiteering from his position. Although Washington issued only a mild reprimand, Arnold felt profoundly betrayed—and had already initiated negotiations with British agents prior to the trial. He later professed loyalty to his principles but falsely claimed that Shippen was unaware of his treasonous intentions.

By 1778, Arnold exhibited clear dissatisfaction and pessimism about America's prospects. On November 10, Major General Nathanael Greene observed that Arnold had become unpopular due to close associations with Loyalists. Shortly thereafter, Arnold confided in Greene about the "deplorable" conditions—currency depreciation, army discontent, and Congressional discord—and warned that without reform "impending ruin" was inevitable. Biographer Nathaniel Philbrick emphasizes Peggy Shippen’s critical role as a Loyalist intermediary facilitating British intelligence.

Covert communications

In May 1779, Arnold encountered Philadelphia merchant Joseph Stansbury, who covertly conveyed Arnold’s offer of allegiance to British General Sir Henry Clinton. Contrary to Arnold’s directive to maintain secrecy, Stansbury informed Loyalist Jonathan Odell in New York. Odell then connected Stansbury with Major John André, the British intelligence chief, sparking clandestine exchanges between Arnold and André, occasionally utilizing Peggy Shippen as a go-between.

Authorized by Clinton, André prepared directives for Arnold and Stansbury. Their correspondence involved encrypted letters and invisible ink, discreetly transmitted through the social networks surrounding Arnold’s wife, with Stansbury serving as the courier.

By July 1779, Arnold had supplied the British with comprehensive intelligence concerning troop placements and supply depots while negotiating remuneration. He initially sought indemnity along with £10,000—an amount akin to what Congress had granted General Charles Lee. Clinton, prioritizing control over the Hudson River Valley, demanded information on West Point’s defenses and urged a personal meeting with Arnold, encouraging him to pursue a higher military rank. Nevertheless, by October 1779, negotiations had reached an impasse. Concurrently, revolutionary mobs menaced Arnold and the Shippen family in Philadelphia. Despite his appeals, neither Congress nor local officials provided security protection for Arnold or his relatives.

Military tribunal

Arnold’s court martial on charges of profiteering commenced on June 1, 1779, but proceedings were postponed until December due to Clinton’s capture of Stony Point, New York, which shifted military priorities. Several members of the tribunal harbored resentments against Arnold stemming from earlier conflicts; however, on January 26, 1780, he was acquitted of all but two minor accusations. Arnold publicized his partial vindication, though Washington issued a formal reprimand regarding his conduct in early April shortly after extending congratulations on the birth of Arnold’s son.

Following Washington’s censure, a Congressional investigation determined that Arnold had failed to fully account for expenses incurred during the Quebec campaign and owed approximately £1,000 to Congress—largely attributed to lost records during the retreat. Disheartened by these findings, Arnold resigned his military command in Philadelphia in late April.

Proposal to surrender West Point

In early April 1780, Schuyler recommended Arnold for command of West Point; however, discussions had stalled by June. Arnold reinitiated secret communications with the British, divulging Schuyler’s proposals and evaluations of West Point’s status. He also revealed plans for a French-American invasion of Quebec via the Connecticut River—unaware that this was a diversionary maneuver. After inspecting West Point on June 16 while traveling to Connecticut for personal matters, Arnold transmitted a detailed report through covert channels. He arranged to sell his Connecticut residence and transferred assets to London through intermediaries based in New York. By July, while in Philadelphia, he wrote to Clinton implying he was assured command of West Point and offered to provide "a drawing of the works ... by which you might take [West Point] without loss."

Following André’s victory at the Siege of Charleston on June 18, Clinton focused efforts on capturing West Point amid concerns about Washington’s army and the potential union with the French fleet in Rhode Island. André’s intelligence agents maintained close surveillance on Arnold. Clinton informed his superiors about this intelligence but delayed responding to Arnold’s letter dated July 7.

Before receiving a reply from Clinton, Arnold pressed for advancement through additional letters. On July 11 he expressed frustration over British suspicion and threatened to terminate negotiations. The following day he explicitly proposed surrendering West Point for £20,000 plus compensation for losses and requested a £1,000 advance payment with their response. These messages were delivered by Samuel Wallis, a Philadelphia businessman secretly working as a British informant.

Command at West Point

On August 3, 1780, Arnold assumed leadership of West Point. Twelve days later, he received a coded message from André containing Clinton's final proposal: £20,000 without any reimbursement for his previous losses. Due to delays in communication, neither party immediately realized the other's acceptance of the offer. Arnold proceeded to transmit detailed intelligence regarding Washington's troop deployments and incoming French forces. On August 25, Shippen delivered Clinton’s official confirmation of the agreement.

Arnold's jurisdiction at West Point covered the American-controlled stretch of the Hudson River from Albany down to British positions near New York City. During this period, he reestablished contact with Joshua Hett Smith, a double agent who owned a residence roughly fifteen miles south of West Point along the Hudson.

After settling into command, Arnold began weakening West Point’s defenses and military capabilities. Essential maintenance on the Hudson River chain was neglected. His forces were scattered throughout his area of control but were kept minimal at West Point itself or dispatched to Washington when requested. While frequently voicing complaints about supply deficiencies, Arnold simultaneously drained West Point’s resources in preparation for an anticipated siege. Some officers suspected him of redirecting supplies for personal gain through illicit markets.

On August 30, Arnold formally accepted Clinton’s conditions via a letter sent through William Heron, a trusted Connecticut Assembly member. Ironically, Heron unwittingly offered his services to the British and later presented Arnold’s letter to General Samuel Holden Parsons of the Connecticut militia, who dismissed it as mere coded business jargon. Four days afterward, Arnold dispatched a similar encrypted message to New York via the spouse of a prisoner of war. A rendezvous was scheduled for September 11 near Dobbs Ferry but was interrupted when British gunboats mistakenly fired upon Arnold’s vessel due to lack of prior notification.

Plot exposed

Arnold and André met on September 21 at the Joshua Hett Smith House. The following day, from Teller's Point, two American patriots under Colonel James Livingston, John "Jack" Peterson and Moses Sherwood, opened fire on , the ship intended to transport André back to New York. Although the damage was minor, a splinter injured Captain Andrew Sutherland's nose, prompting Vulture to withdraw, forcing André to travel overland instead. Arnold supplied André with passes to cross American lines and provided plans for West Point.

On September 23 near Tarrytown, New York, three Westchester militiamen captured André. They found documents revealing the conspiracy and forwarded them up the chain of command. André persuaded Colonel John Jameson to send him back to Arnold at West Point but was intercepted by Major Benjamin Tallmadge, affiliated with the Continental Army's Culper Ring, who insisted on detaining him. Although reluctant, Jameson recalled the messenger delivering André but sent him again to inform Arnold about André's capture.

Arnold became aware of André's apprehension on September 24 while awaiting Washington at the former summer residence of British Colonel Beverley Robinson. After receiving Jameson's message that Washington possessed incriminating documents, Arnold fled downriver to Vulture and escaped to New York City. From there, he sought safe passage for his wife to Philadelphia, which Washington granted.

When confronted with proof of Arnold's betrayal, Washington maintained composure but expressed doubt: "Arnold has betrayed me. Whom can we trust now?" He conducted a thorough investigation and proposed exchanging André for Arnold during negotiations with Clinton; however, Clinton declined. Following a military tribunal, André was executed by hanging at Tappan, New York on October 2. Washington also attempted covert operations to capture Arnold using agents such as Sergeant Major John Champe, nearly succeeding before Arnold relocated prior to departing for Virginia in December.

Arnold publicly defended his conduct in an open letter titled "To the Inhabitants of America," released in October 1780. In correspondence with Washington requesting safe passage for Shippen, he asserted that his actions were driven by "Love to my country," despite widespread public condemnation.

Operations in Virginia and Connecticut Colonies

Although Arnold was appointed brigadier general by the British, with a promised annual salary of several hundred pounds, he ultimately received only £6,315 along with a yearly pension of £360 due to his unsuccessful conspiracy. In December 1780, following orders from Clinton, Arnold led a force of 1,600 troops into Virginia, where they unexpectedly seized Richmond and destroyed various supply depots, foundries, and mills. The Virginia militia, commanded by Colonel Sampson Mathews, responded promptly, compelling Arnold to withdraw to Portsmouth to await reinforcements or possible evacuation.

Among the American forces pursuing him was the Marquis de Lafayette, who had been instructed by Washington to execute Arnold if captured. British reinforcements arrived in late March under Major General William Phillips, who carried out additional raids throughout Virginia and defeated Baron von Steuben at Petersburg before succumbing to fever in May 1781. Arnold remained in command until Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis arrived on May 20 and assumed leadership. Cornwallis ignored Arnold’s recommendation to establish a permanent base inland—a decision that later contributed to his surrender at Yorktown. A British colonel remarked on the dissatisfaction among officers regarding Arnold’s leadership.

Upon returning to New York in June, Arnold suggested several economic warfare strategies aimed at hastening the war’s conclusion. Most were rejected by Clinton; however, he approved a raid on New London, Connecticut. In September, Arnold led over 1,700 men in an assault that resulted in extensive destruction of New London property valued at approximately $500,000. They also captured Fort Griswold in Groton and killed American defenders who had surrendered following the Battle of Groton Heights—located only a few miles from Arnold’s birthplace of Norwich. Despite the damage inflicted on the Americans, British losses were significant—nearly one-quarter of the troops were killed or wounded—and Clinton cautioned that such costly victories could not be sustained.

British Capitulation and Exile in England

Prior to Cornwallis’ surrender in October 1781, Arnold sought permission from Clinton to travel to England to advise Lord George Germain regarding the ongoing conflict. After the surrender occurred, Clinton granted this request, and on December 8, 1781, Arnold departed New York with his family for England, never returning to America.

In London, Arnold allied himself with the Tory faction and counseled Germain and King George III to persist in opposing the American revolutionaries. However, opposition from anti-war Whigs in Parliament led to Germain’s resignation and the collapse of Lord North’s administration. Attempts by Arnold to join Lieutenant General Guy Carleton in New York were refused. Subsequent efforts to obtain positions within the British government or with the East India Company were unsuccessful, resulting in a reduced income lifestyle. His reputation suffered negative press coverage in Britain, especially when compared unfavorably to the celebrated patriot André. George Johnstone declined Arnold’s application for a role with the East India Company, citing public distrust despite acknowledging Arnold’s personal conduct.

Settlement in New Brunswick and Return to England

In 1785, Arnold relocated with his son Richard to Saint John, New Brunswick, where they engaged in land speculation and trade with the West Indies. He acquired substantial land near Maugerville as well as urban plots in Saint John and Fredericton. The delivery of his first vessel, the Lord Sheffield, was accompanied by disputes over payment terms which Arnold defended based on contractual agreements. In 1786 he returned to London to bring his family back to Saint John and resolved a £12,000 loan dispute by paying £900.

After settling permanently in Saint John in 1787, Arnold became embroiled in controversies stemming from poor business decisions and lawsuits. Notably, after winning a defamation case against a former partner, local residents expressed their displeasure by burning him in effigy outside his residence. The family departed Saint John for London in December 1791.

In July 1792, Arnold engaged in a non-lethal duel with the Earl of Lauderdale following insults exchanged within the House of Lords. During the French Revolutionary Wars, he equipped a privateer vessel and continued trading with the West Indies despite increased dangers. Captured on spying charges by French colonial authorities in Guadeloupe, he avoided execution by bribing guards and escaping to a British blockade fleet. Subsequently, he assisted in organizing militia forces within the British West Indies and earned commendations from local landowners. Instead of receiving a military command himself, he and his sons were granted 15,000 acres of land in Upper Canada near what is now Renfrew, Ontario.

Death and funeral

Arnold’s health deteriorated in January 1801 due to gout, a condition that had limited his movement since 1775. He was also diagnosed with dropsy, and although a retreat to the countryside temporarily alleviated his symptoms, his condition soon worsened, resulting in his death on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60. While folklore suggests he wished to pass away wearing his old uniform, this claim is probably unfounded. His interment took place at St. Mary's Church in Battersea, England; however, a clerical mistake during church renovations caused his remains to be relocated to an unmarked communal grave. His funeral procession featured seven mourning coaches and four state carriages but notably did not include any military honors.

Arnold’s estate was modest and burdened by debts, which were ultimately resolved by Shippen. His will contained substantial bequests to John Sage, who may have been an illegitimate son or grandson, though historians remain uncertain about Sage’s precise relationship to Arnold.

Legacy

Following the exposure of his betrayal, Benedict Arnold quickly became a byword for "traitor." His notoriety was often framed through biblical allusions; for instance, Benjamin Franklin famously remarked that "Judas sold only one man, Arnold three millions," while contemporaries condemned his conduct as profoundly unethical. In Arnold’s birthplace of Norwich, Connecticut, all family gravestones except that of his mother were destroyed.

Arnold was conscious of the damage to his reputation. When French diplomat Talleyrand encountered him in 1794, he observed Arnold’s estrangement from American associates and recognized that he could no longer return to the United States. Despite political condemnation, Talleyrand expressed a degree of sympathy toward him.

Early biographies focused heavily on Arnold’s treasonous nature, often attributing it to formative experiences in childhood. By the mid-1800s, Arnold’s name had become emblematic of national betrayal and was frequently invoked during the sectional disputes preceding the American Civil War. His name was wielded as a pejorative against secessionist leaders like Jefferson Davis; for example, Harper’s Weekly in 1861 disparaged Confederate officials by likening them to Arnold.

Fictional accounts further entrenched Arnold’s negative reputation. A widely read 19th-century children’s story portrayed him as a harsh youth who eventually became a traitor. Conversely, some stage productions attempted to delve into the complexities of his duplicity rather than simply condemning him outright.

In Canadian historical perspectives, Arnold is regarded as a relatively minor figure whose tenure in New Brunswick was marked by controversy and legal disputes; he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists there. Nevertheless, his descendants established notable presences in Canada—especially in Upper Canada and Saskatchewan—primarily through John Sage’s lineage after Sage adopted the Arnold surname.

Honors

The Boot Monument at Saratoga National Historical Park commemorates Arnold without explicitly naming him. Gifted by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster, its inscription states: "In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General." At the Saratoga Battle Monument, there are four niches; three contain statues of Generals Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan, while the fourth remains vacant.

Within an old cadet chapel at the United States Military Academy, plaques honor all Revolutionary War generals. One plaque lists only rank and birth year: "major general… born 1740," referring to Arnold’s birth according to the Julian calendar. Additional historical markers in Danvers, Massachusetts, Newburyport, Massachusetts, near Lake Champlain in Maine, and in Skowhegan, Maine recognize Arnold’s 1775 Quebec campaign and military contributions.

A plaque at Arnold’s former London home at 62 Gloucester Place identifies him as an "American Patriot," reflecting his conviction that his actions served American interests. He was interred at St Mary's Church, Battersea, where a commemorative stained glass window displays a fusion of U.S. and U.K. flags.

Marriages and offspring

Arnold fathered three sons with Margaret Mansfield:

• Benedict Arnold (1768–1795), who served as a Captain in the British Army stationed in Jamaica
• Richard Arnold (1769–1847), a Lieutenant in the cavalry of the American Legion
• Henry Arnold (1772–1826), also a Lieutenant in the American Legion cavalry

With Peggy Shippen, Arnold had five children:

• Edward Shippen Arnold (1780–1813), Lieutenant in the British Army serving in India; associated with the Bengal Army
• James Robertson Arnold (1781–1854), who rose to Lieutenant General in the Royal Engineers
• George Arnold (1787–1828), Lieutenant Colonel in the Bengal Cavalry
• Sophia Matilda Arnold (1785–1828)
• William Fitch Arnold (1794–1846), Captain in the 9th Queen's Royal Lancers

In his will, Arnold made notable provisions for John Sage (born 1786), whom some historians speculate might have been an illegitimate son or grandson.

Published works

• A Proclamation to the Officers and Soldiers of the Continental Army (1780)

See also

• List of Freemasons
• List of people from Connecticut

Works cited

• Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict", American National Biography (1999)

Further reading

• Arnold, Isaac Newton. The life of Benedict Arnold; his patriotism and his treason (1880); outdated.
• Burt, Daniel S. The Biography Book (2001), annotates 26 books and 2 films.
• Case, Stephen and Mark Jacob. Treacherous Beauty: Peggy Shippen, The Woman Behind Benedict Arnold's Plot To Betray America (2012), popular biography.
• Courtwright, Julie. "Whom Can We Trust Now? The Portrayal of Benedict Arnold in American History" Fairmont Folio v. 2 (1998) [online].
• Ducharme, Lori J., and Gary Alan Fine. "The Construction of Nonpersonhood and Demonization: Commemorating the Traitorous Reputation of Benedict Arnold," Social Forces, 1995.
• Fine, Gary Alan. Difficult reputations: Collective memories of the evil, inept, and controversial (University of Chicago Press, 2001), chapter on Benedict Arnold.
• Merrill, Jane, and John Endicott. The Late Years of Benedict Arnold: Fugitive, Smuggler, Mercenary, 1780–1801 (2022).
• Nicolosi, Annie et al. Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor.: The Idea Book for Educators (A&E Network, 2003) [online]; teaching resource.
• Palmer, Dave Richard. George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots (2014); popular dual biography.
• Philbrick, Nathaniel. Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution (2016).
• Roberts, Kenneth. Arundel (1995; orig. 1929), a novel.
• Rubin Stuart, Nancy. Defiant brides: the untold story of two revolutionary-era women and the radical men they married (2013).
• Shalhope, Robert E. "Benedict Arnold as Hero." Reviews in American History 26.4 (1998).
• Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography [online].
• Sparks, Jared. The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold (2006; orig. 1835); outdated.
• Timmers, Christopher. "Judas of the revolution: America's most infamous traitor." TLS, January 25, 2019 [online].
• Todd, Charles Burr. The Real Benedict Arnold (1903); outdated.
• Trees, Andy. "Benedict Arnold, John André, and His Three Yeoman Captors: A Sentimental Journey or American Virtue Defined." Early American Literature 35.3 (2000) [online].
• Van Doren, Carl. Secret History of the American Revolution (1941) [online].
• Wallace, Willard M. "Benedict Arnold: Traitorous Patriot." in George Athan Billias, ed., George Washington's Generals (1964).
• Wallace, Willard M. Traitorous Hero The Life & Fortunes of Benedict Arnold (1954).

Primary sources

• "Spy Letters of the American Revolution" features Arnold's correspondence from 1779–80 addressed to Clinton and André, outlining his plans for treason; sourced from the Clements Library
• Collection of primary documents related to Benedict Arnold before and following his act of betrayal

External links

• Benedict Arnold : Hero Betrayed
• Benedict Arnold profile on AmericanRevolution.org
• Benedict Arnold entry in Encyclopædia Britannica
• Benedict Arnold information from George Washington's Mount Vernon
• Visual representations of Benedict Arnold at varsitytutors.com