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Camp Douglas (Chicago)

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Adapted from the English Wikipedia article Camp Douglas (Chicago), available under CC BY-SA 4.0Updated 7 August 202556 sources
Camp Douglas
Company typeMilitary facility
IndustryMilitary training and prisoner-of-war camp
Founded1861
Headquarters
Chicago, Illinois
,
United States
ProductsUnion Army training, Confederate prisoner-of-war detention

Camp Douglas, situated in Chicago, Illinois, was among the largest Union Army prisoner-of-war facilities holding Confederate captives during the American Civil War. Located on the prairie south of the city, it also served as a Union training and detention site. Initially established in 1861 to organize and train volunteer regiments, it was converted into a POW camp by early 1862. Later that year, it reverted to training functions before becoming a detention center for paroled Confederate prisoners—Union soldiers temporarily held by the Confederacy amid prisoner exchange arrangements.

From January 1863 until the war concluded in May 1865, Camp Douglas operated continuously as a POW camp. Following the conflict, during mid to late 1865, it was utilized as a discharge point for Union volunteer units before being dismantled and its resources liquidated. The property was eventually sold and developed.

After the war, Camp Douglas became infamous for its harsh conditions and a mortality rate near seventeen percent, similar to other Northern prison camps. Nearly 4,275 Confederate detainees were moved from its cemetery to a mass burial site at Oak Woods Cemetery.

Training Camp Douglas

On April 15, 1861, following the surrender of Fort Sumter to Confederate forces, President Abraham Lincoln called upon 75,000 State militia members for ninety days to quell the rebellion. By May 3, 1861, he expanded this call with a request for 42,000 volunteers enlisted for three years, increasing the regular army by 23,000 troops and augmenting the U.S. Navy by 18,000 sailors. Many who initially signed up for ninety days reenlisted for longer terms. In July 1861, Congress retroactively sanctioned Lincoln’s calls and authorized an additional one million volunteers serving three years.

At first, volunteer regiments were organized and equipped by states and local governments until federal authorities took over these responsibilities later in 1861. In February 1862, Captain John Christopher, an Army recruiting officer, personally financed most of Camp Douglas’s construction on behalf of the federal government. Following Lincoln’s recruitment directives, Illinois volunteers gathered in Chicago’s public and private venues before relocating to temporary camps on prairies southeast of the city. The site was adjacent to land owned by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, who had donated property south of these camps to the original University of Chicago.

The majority of camp grounds were owned by Henry Graves. Illinois Governor Richard Yates appointed Judge Allen C. Fuller, soon to become Illinois adjutant general, to identify a permanent military camp location in Chicago. Fuller selected the existing provisional camp due to its proximity—approximately 4mi—from downtown Chicago, its surrounding open prairie terrain, access to Lake Michigan water sources, and closeness to the Illinois Central Railroad.

However, Fuller’s selection had drawbacks; the area was low-lying and marshy with no sewage system for over a year. The prairie soil failed to absorb waste from thousands of soldiers and horses, resulting in flooding after rains. Winters brought muddy conditions except when frozen solid. At opening, only a single water hydrant worked; latrines and medical facilities remained inadequate through mid-1862 when Confederate prisoners first arrived.

The camp extended four blocks westward from Cottage Grove Avenue to what is now Martin Luther King Drive; its northern border was East 31st Street and southern boundary East 33rd Place (then known as College Place). A southern entrance led to a 10-acre tract donated by Senator Douglas to the Old University of Chicago at Cottage Grove Avenue and 35th Street. This section contained a smallpox hospital, four rows of garrison barracks, and an Illinois Central Railroad station.

Throughout the war, Camp Douglas’s boundaries and building arrangements shifted but retained major divisions: "Garrison Square" housed officers' quarters, command headquarters, post office, and parade grounds; "White Oak Square" accommodated Union troops and prisoners until late 1863 and included the original prison as well as the infamous "White Oak Dungeon." This dungeon measured just 18sqft with one barred window set high on a wall and entry through a small hatch in the ceiling; it featured a damp floor and an unsanitary latrine corner emitting foul odors.

Prison hospitals and a morgue were situated just south in "Hospital Square," covering ten acres. In 1863, "Prison Square" was established in the western portion of the camp along with surgeons' quarters and storage warehouses. This area merged parts of other sections with White Oak Square and was enclosed separately from other camp divisions. Prison Square contained sixty-four barracks each measuring 24by with a central kitchen partition twenty feet wide; designed for roughly ninety-five occupants apiece but often housing an average of one hundred eighty-nine during peak prisoner populations.

Leadership of Colonel Joseph H. Tucker

Governor Yates selected Colonel Joseph H. Tucker, who led the 60th Regiment of the Illinois State Militia, to supervise the construction and serve as the inaugural commander of Camp Douglas.[1] The barracks were erected in late 1861 by state militia units known as the Mechanics Fusileers, composed mainly of apprentice and journeyman carpenters.[2] In December 1861, these troops rebelled due to being reassigned as infantry and disputes over pay, necessitating intervention by regular army forces to quell the unrest.[3] After repairs were made to the camp, the mutineers were permitted to return home.[4]

By November 1861, Camp Douglas accommodated roughly 4,222 volunteers representing eleven regiments.[4] Disease had claimed 42 recruits by February 1862.[4] Prior to its transformation into a prisoner-of-war facility, approximately 40,000 Union recruits passed through Camp Douglas,[5] although earlier assessments estimated this number at 25,000.[6] Colonel Tucker confronted significant difficulties in maintaining order and discipline both within the camp and throughout Chicago.

Commands of Colonels Joseph H. Tucker and Arno Voss

Following the Union’s victories at Fort Donelson and Fort Henry in February 1862, Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant’s forces captured between 12,000 and 15,000 Confederate soldiers.[7] The army was unprepared for this large number of prisoners and sought available locations for their confinement. Colonel Tucker informed Major General Henry W. Halleck that Camp Douglas could accommodate between 8,000 and 9,000 prisoners—comparable to its original capacity for recruits—though it was not designed as a detention center.[7]

Initially, Brigadier General George W. Cullum redirected many captives to St. Louis; however, War Department directives soon ordered 7,000 prisoners sent to Camp Douglas.[8] The Illinois Central Railroad transported 4,459 prisoners from Cairo to the camp.[8]

On February 18, 1862, Colonel Arno Voss assumed temporary command until Colonel Tucker returned.[9] Voss prepared for the arrival of prisoners from Fort Donelson on February 20 despite the camp’s lack of proper prison infrastructure; prisoners were housed alongside departing Union soldiers.[10] Despite no medical facilities being available, sick prisoners were also sent to the camp.[11]

By February 23, most Union troops had vacated the camp except for a small guard contingent consisting of one regiment (469 enlisted men) and roughly 40 officers.[12]

General Halleck ordered on February 25 that Confederate officers be transferred to Camp Chase in Ohio, leaving only enlisted men at Camp Douglas.[13] By the end of March, over 700 prisoners had died; approximately 77 escapes had been documented by June 1862,[14] with no reports indicating escaped prisoners caused harm to civilians.[15]

Command under Colonel James A. Mulligan

On February 26, 1862, General Halleck directed Colonel Tucker to report to Springfield. Subsequently, Colonel James A. Mulligan, an Illinois Union Army officer, took command of the prisoner-of-war camp until June 14, 1862. Between June 14 and June 19, Colonel Daniel Cameron, Jr. assumed temporary leadership.

Although the camp’s grounds were inadequate and barracks and sewer systems were substandard or nonexistent—the latter not authorized until June 1863—initial treatment of prisoners was reasonably humane. Prisoners received adequate food supplies along with cooking stoves, utensils, and clothing; a well-stocked sutler store was also established.

On March 1, 1862, three tons of cornmeal alongside large shipments of blankets, clothing, shoes, and eating utensils were delivered to the camp by Union forces. Nevertheless, disease became rampant among both prisoners and some guards. Water shortages occurred due to frozen hydrants. Approximately one in eight prisoners from Fort Donelson succumbed to pneumonia or other illnesses. After April 12, Colonel Mulligan limited visits by physicians and ministers in an effort to curb disease transmission.

Mulligan collaborated with local relief organizations addressing deteriorating camp conditions. His empathy toward prisoners may have been influenced by his own respectful treatment following capture and parole by Confederate General Sterling Price at the First Battle of Lexington in September 1861; Mulligan himself was exchanged on October 30, 1861.

Following Union successes at Shiloh and Island No. 10 during spring 1862, Camp Douglas held approximately 8,962 Confederate captives. Overcrowding exacerbated already poor conditions and contributed to an increase in escapes—some facilitated by Confederate sympathizers in Chicago as well as lax oversight from Mulligan and his guards.

Responsibilities of Officers in the Department of the Army

To address the increasing prisoner population during the conflict, the Department of the Army created the Office of the Commissary-General of Prisoners in June 1862, which reported directly to the Secretary of War. In August of that year, Lieutenant Colonel William Hoffman, who had recently been freed from a Confederate prisoner-of-war camp, assumed leadership of this office. Throughout the war, he was responsible for establishing nationwide policies concerning the treatment of prisoners, management of camps, and terms for prisoner exchanges.

Hoffman’s evaluations highlighted Camp Douglas as unsuitable for detaining prisoners. He advocated for constructing insulated two-story barracks; however, the Army only authorized thin, single-level buildings originally designed for short-term use by volunteer recruits. In 1862, Hoffman, along with Mulligan and Tucker, petitioned for funding to upgrade sewer systems and erect new barracks but did not succeed initially. Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs considered sewer improvements excessively costly. It was only after advocacy by the U.S. Sanitary Commission that sewer construction received approval in June 1863.

Historians from the twentieth century have criticized both local commanders and Hoffman for neglecting to provide prisoners with a nutritionally balanced diet. Enhancing dietary provisions might have mitigated illnesses such as scurvy caused by vitamin shortages.

Colonel Joseph H. Tucker’s Second Tenure

Remaining with the Illinois militia, Colonel Tucker reassumed command of Camp Douglas on June 19, 1862. To curb civilian assistance to escaping prisoners, he imposed martial law on July 12, 1862. Following an escape involving twenty-five prisoners on July 23, Tucker detained several individuals suspected of aiding fugitives and enlisted Chicago police to conduct searches within the camp. This intervention generated enduring resentment because police confiscated valuables from prisoners—including five pistols and numerous bullets. Within two weeks, authorities recaptured twenty of the escapees.

During the summer of 1862, Henry Whitney Bellows, president of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, a civilian organization providing advisory support on camp conditions, reported severe sanitation deficiencies at Camp Douglas:

Sir, the amount of standing water, unpoliced grounds, foul sinks, unventilated and crowded barracks, general disorder, soil reeking with miasmatic accretions, rotten bones and emptied camp kettles is enough to drive a sanitarian to despair... Nothing but fire can cleanse them.

Although Hoffman had already sought improvements, he withheld Bellows’ report to prevent conflict with superiors such as Quartermaster General Meigs. The dire conditions impacted even Tucker’s family; tragically, one of his sons passed away at the camp during that summer.

By September 1862, conditions had improved as nearly all prisoners had departed from Camp Douglas. Around one thousand prisoners swore allegiance oaths and were subsequently released. Others were exchanged under the terms of the Dix–Hill prisoner cartel agreed upon on July 22, 1862, between Union and Confederate authorities. By October 6, even those prisoners who were ill had been removed. Up until September 1862, approximately 980 Confederate prisoners and 240 Union trainees and guards had died at Camp Douglas, primarily due to disease.

Training facility and detention site for Union parolees, 1862

During the autumn of 1862, Camp Douglas temporarily resumed its function as a training ground for Union volunteers before transitioning to a distinctive role.

Union Army parolees under Brigadier General Daniel Tyler

Following their capture by Confederate Lieutenant General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson at the Battle of Harpers Ferry on September 15, 1862, approximately 8,000 paroled Union soldiers were held at Camp Douglas awaiting formal prisoner exchange. Command shifted to Brigadier General Daniel Tyler, who succeeded Colonel Tucker. Under Tyler’s leadership, these parolees faced conditions comparable to—and in some respects worse than—those previously experienced by Confederate captives, due to the camp’s declining state. Their detention lasted around two months; although improved clothing and better physical condition helped somewhat, the damp environment and inadequate food led to illness and fatalities, including forty deaths and sixty cases of fever within the 126th New York Volunteer Infantry.

The severe conditions triggered unrest including mutinies, fires, and escape attempts among the parolees. On October 23, 1862, Tyler deployed regular army troops to suppress riots, while Secretary of War Edwin Stanton ordered a relaxation of camp discipline to restore calm. By the end of November, most prisoner exchanges had been completed, resulting in nearly all parolees leaving except for Colonel Daniel Cameron and his 65th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment, who remained as guards until April 19, 1863. During their confinement, thirty-five men from this regiment succumbed to disease.

Leadership under Brigadier General Jacob Ammen and Colonel Daniel Cameron’s second and third tenures

On November 20, 1862, Colonel Daniel Cameron returned to command the camp.

By January 6, 1863, Brigadier General Jacob Ammen was assigned to oversee Camp Douglas as Confederate prisoners captured at the Battle of Stones River began arriving. Between January 26 and 30, roughly 4,300 prisoners in poor physical condition and inadequate clothing were brought in following Union victories such as Fort Hindman (Arkansas Post). During this time frame, Lake Superior Chippewa Chiefs visited the camp en route to Washington D.C., interacting with the prisoners.

General Ammen reported on February 2 that many detainees were too ill to withstand the harsh camp environment; however, no immediate improvements were implemented. That same month witnessed 387 prisoner deaths—the highest monthly mortality rate recorded at any Civil War prison camp. Many prisoners arrived weakened from previous confinement in St. Louis without sufficient clothing or shelter. Temperatures dropped significantly, reaching lows around , while outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases became widespread. By March, smallpox fatalities affected both prisoners and guards and later spread to northern cities and Virginia through prisoner transfers. Most detainees were exchanged by April 3, 1863.

By April 27, deaths among this group totaled 784, although estimates indicate over 300 fatalities went unrecorded. Total deaths at Camp Douglas by this point likely ranged between 1,400 and 1,700 despite official records documenting only 615. The majority perished due to typhoid fever and pneumonia exacerbated by unsanitary conditions, poor sewage management, severe weather exposure, insufficient heating, and inadequate clothing. Some deaths resulted from guard interventions against rule-breaking prisoners; however, such events were rare and often involved guards under the influence of alcohol. Survivors generally attested to humane treatment despite enduring significant hardships.

General Ammen was reassigned on April 13, 1863; Colonel Cameron briefly resumed command for about one week thereafter.

Temporary Leadership of Captain J. S. Putnam

Between May 12 and August 18, 1863, Captain J. S. Putnam oversaw Camp Douglas, which at that time housed roughly fifty detainees. During the summer of 1863, the army initiated enhancements aimed at restarting Union recruit training. However, as Union forces secured more victories, the influx of prisoners caused the camp to revert to functioning primarily as a prison facility until the conclusion of the war.

Leadership under Colonel Charles V. DeLand

Colonel Charles V. DeLand assumed command on August 18, 1863, coinciding with the arrival of the first substantial group of Confederate captives—558 guerrilla fighters led by Brigadier General John Hunt Morgan—who reached the camp on August 20. By late September, Camp Douglas contained 4,234 Confederate detainees; this number climbed to 6,085 by early October, while only 978 Union guards were assigned.

DeLand encountered significant difficulties enforcing discipline amid deteriorating conditions and corruption among guards, including members from his own regiment. Prisoners suffered from restricted water availability, requiring extended waiting periods; sanitation facilities were inadequate, with latrines running through the camp’s center; housing and medical accommodations were insufficient. Retaliatory directives replaced cook stoves with inefficient boilers, resulting in a decline in food quality.

To address these issues, DeLand utilized infantry prisoners to construct new sewage systems and reinforce the stockade; many volunteered in exchange for tobacco and clothing. Following critical inspections concerning hygiene, he supplied cooking equipment, lime, brushes, and lumber for necessary repairs. Nevertheless, overcrowding continued to undermine sanitary improvements. Although sewer construction was completed by early November, it remained substandard; water pipes and fencing were also installed during this period.

Due to weak security measures, escape attempts were common; prisoners caught digging tunnels faced severe punishments such as confinement in the cramped White Oak Dungeon and physical abuse. Over 150 prisoners successfully escaped while DeLand was in charge.

A controversy arose when substandard rations provided by vendors connected to President Lincoln’s brother-in-law were distributed directly to prisoners without passing through the commissary.

DeLand’s security challenges were compounded by the camp’s layout, ineffective Invalid Corps guards, and close prisoner-guard interactions that encouraged bribery and corruption. He imposed strict disciplinary actions: lining up suspected tunnelers with orders to shoot if they resisted; hanging inmates by their thumbs as intimidation; conducting extensive barracks inspections; extinguishing cook stoves at sunset during cold weather; and limiting clothing use during nighttime latrine visits.

In November 1863, Colonel Benjamin J. Sweet contested DeLand’s command but was overruled after DeLand successfully managed a fire that destroyed substantial camp structures. Following this event, ration reductions increased prisoner suffering despite maintaining sufficient food quantities.

Inspectors such as Brigadier General William W. Orme reported dangerously low guard numbers and high escape rates; Chicago physicians described Camp Douglas as an "extermination camp," which became the largest burial site for Confederate soldiers outside Southern territory.

In December 1863, sutler stores were shut down in retaliation for Confederate abuses toward Union captives. After a significant tunnel escape on December 3, DeLand ordered removal of barracks flooring replaced with dirt floors, exacerbating health issues. Partitions were dismantled; warm clothing was confiscated; barbershops and newsstands were closed; sales of writing supplies ceased—measures likely intended as punishment following escape incidents.

Despite strict treatment of escapees and rule violators—including prolonged dungeon confinement for those refusing amnesty—DeLand attempted to secure release for fifty underage prisoners aged between 14 and 17; however, this request was denied by the Army.

Leadership of Brigadier General William W. Orme

On December 23, 1863, Brigadier General William W. Orme succeeded Colonel DeLand as the commanding officer of the camp; however, DeLand continued to oversee the garrison until March 11, 1864.[16][17] The following day, Orme reinforced the garrison by adding roughly 400 soldiers from the 15th regiment of the Invalid Corps led by Colonel James C. Strong[17]. To enhance morale, the Invalid Corps was renamed the Veteran Reserve Corps on March 18, 1864.[18]

Orme tackled persistent problems such as the scandal involving substandard beef and various administrative difficulties. After conducting an inquiry, he cleared Ninian Edwards and his suppliers of wrongdoing, identifying subcontractors as responsible for the meat quality issues.[19] Despite Edwards' exoneration and his presidential connections, control over subsistence was removed from him by the Army on January 27, 1864.[20] In March 1864, Edwards was reassigned to serve as food commissary and treasurer of the prison fund.[21]

A severe blizzard struck on January 1, 1864, with temperatures plummeting to nearly −18 °F.[22] Several escapees succumbed to freezing conditions nearby.[22] On January 8, Orme implemented armed patrols to maintain security.[23] Allegations that prisoners resorted to eating rats following a kitchen demolition on January 10 are questionable.[23][24]</ref> Orme arranged for Union army overcoats to be issued to prisoners but faced criticism for circumventing official protocols.[23]

Dr. Edward D. Kittoe’s inspection on January 18, 1864, revealed overcrowded and unsanitary barracks plagued by vermin due to missing flooring.[25] Food preparation was inadequate and waste disposal insufficient.[25] Although the hospital received commendations, it was overcrowded; thirty-six percent of inmates were ill with fifty-seven deaths recorded in December 1863.[26] Guards also endured poor conditions, with twenty-nine percent sick and six fatalities that same month.[26] Kittoe declared the camp unfit for habitation, yet it continued operations.[26]

Beginning January 20, inmates were relocated from White Oak Square to Prisoner's Square as part of an expansion covering .[27] Barracks were shifted using rollers; prisoners refusing unpaid labor were confined in temporary shelters until all relocations concluded in April 1864.[28]

Following an inspection by Dr. Clark on February 4, improvements included restoring barracks flooring and increasing functional water hydrants from three to twelve.[29][30] By February 27, all barracks had floors installed elevated five feet on timber supports, enhancing hygiene and minimizing tunneling attempts.[31] Initially positioned closer to fences—which encouraged tunnel escapes—barracks were later moved further away under official direction to reduce escape risks.[16]

On March 11, 1864, Colonel DeLand and his regiment departed for frontline duty; during key engagements he sustained multiple wounds and was captured by Confederate forces who treated his injuries despite his previous command at Camp Douglas.[32] He was later exchanged and discharged on February 4, 1865.[33] Congress granted him an honorary brevet promotion to brigadier general retroactive to March 13, 1865.[34]

Garrison leadership under Colonel James C. Strong

During the tenures of General Orme and Colonel Sweet, the War Department assigned Colonel James C. Strong to command the garrison. At the outset, Strong oversaw approximately 650 fit soldiers responsible for securing nearly 6,000 detainees. He conducted a thorough revision of prisoner records, uncovering 84 unaccounted-for inmates, and was the first to mandate labor from prisoners, restricting work details to four hours each day. From January through March 1864, with only 550 guards available for duty, there were 32 escape incidents. To enhance security, Strong relocated buildings away from perimeter fences and finalized the construction of a separating fence on March 22, 1864. Additionally, General Orme improved nighttime security by installing oil lamps along the fence line.

Around April 1, 1864, a new sutler’s store began operations, though it charged steep prices. By April 10, an advanced hospital with 180 beds was completed, featuring dining areas, hot water supply, laundry services, and flush toilets—although expenses doubled the initial budget. Despite these improvements, hospital capacity remained inadequate; only 70 extra beds were added within existing older structures. By mid-April, the smallpox ward was relocated to Adele Grove near the University of Chicago.

Under Strong’s command, discipline became notably stricter, accompanied by increased reports of prisoner mistreatment. He authorized patrols and assigned sergeants and corporals to each barracks; some guards displayed vindictive behavior. Punishments included forcing prisoners to stand on barrels for violations and wearing placards indicating their offenses. A new dungeon was constructed in Prisoner’s Square, and ball-and-chain penalties using heavy cannonballs became frequent—often imposed on those refusing to take loyalty oaths.

Following a War Department directive dated March 17, 1864, officers investigated shooting incidents within the camp. After this order, only eight shootings were documented—mostly connected to escape attempts or rule infractions—with some prisoners suffering injuries from stray bullets.

An inspection on April 16 by Lt. Colonel John F. Marsh revealed lax control over the sutler’s operations; prisoners were paid in tobacco for collecting refuse. Barracks conditions were poor, with damaged flooring and dirty bedding; the grounds were muddy and policing inadequate.

On April 17, General Ulysses S. Grant suspended prisoner exchange talks until black Union soldiers held by Confederate forces were included in negotiations. This led to a stalemate lasting several months before exchanges resumed in January 1865. Both sides consequently faced extended periods of prisoner confinement.

Without official approval on April 27, General Orme removed Colonel Strong from command and appointed Colonel Benjamin J. Sweet as his successor. Orme resigned two days later amid directives to rectify camp problems and reportedly due to illness.

Leadership under Colonel Benjamin J. Sweet

Colonel Sweet assumed command of the camp on May 2, 1864, after serving there for seven months. Although there is some skepticism about his claim of being wounded at the battle of Perryville, he had transferred to the Invalid Corps owing to his injuries. Sweet implemented more rigorous discipline by increasing punishments and reducing rations in accordance with updated War Department policies. He demonstrated greater administrative effectiveness than previous commanders.

Sweet reinstated Colonel Strong as garrison commander but created tension with Colonel Hoffman by declining to reside at the camp and moving his office downtown Chicago. His daughter Ada served as his secretary. Sweet appointed Captain Webb Sponable as prison inspector; Sponable’s patrol unit oversaw ration distribution, cooking supervision, and work details management. While prisoners perceived less accountability among guards due to Sweet’s absence from the camp, patrols also shielded inmates from internal violence and disciplined abusive personnel.

Rations were cut further by removing hominy and candles—items suspected of being wasted or used for tunneling efforts. Employing forced labor, Sweet expanded prisoner housing along parallel streets. Daily searches for contraband aimed at preventing bribery became routine; excess clothing was confiscated during a May 24 roll call. Although erosion caused sand and dust problems due to depleted topsoil, Sweet improved sanitation by ordering new sinks installed and barracks repaired while compelling prisoners to maintain cleanliness.

An escape attempt on June 1 was thwarted without injuries. As prisoner numbers increased during summer 1864, rations were again reduced in retaliation for Confederate actions; some inmates resorted to consuming rats for sustenance. Guards severely punished those caught scavenging bones from refuse piles. Prolonged confinement led to more frequent inmate altercations that were usually broken up by fellow prisoners before guards intervened. Work assignments continued despite deteriorating conditions.

By June 1864, guards introduced a punitive device known as "the mule," a wooden horse structure forcing prisoners to sit on a narrow edge—sometimes with weights attached to their feet—often until they lost consciousness. This punishment was administered outdoors regardless of weather conditions; even one guard was subjected to it as discipline. Some guards faced confinement or other penalties for offenses including desertion or neglect of duty. Following War Department instructions, the post surgeon denied Confederate medical personnel free access to medicines for prisoners under custody.

The 1864 Alleged 'Camp Douglas Conspiracy' to Liberate Prisoners

The so-called Camp Douglas Conspiracy, purportedly planned to attack the camp and free inmates on November 8, 1864, remains a subject of historical dispute regarding its legitimacy.[35] Historian George Levy contends that the scheme originated as a deceptive ploy aimed at Confederate operatives but eventually became a fabricated story exploited by Colonel Sweet for his own advantage.[36] While Confederate agents were convinced they had a credible plan, Sweet leveraged this perception for personal benefit.[37] In contrast, Kelly and other scholars have treated the conspiracy as authentic.[38][39]

At the start of 1864, Confederate authorities dispatched agents to Canada with intentions to orchestrate prison breaks and launch attacks in the North.[40] Captain Thomas Hines initially believed he could rally up to 5,000 Confederate sympathizers in Chicago; however, by mid-August he had gathered only about 25 untrained volunteers.[41] After the Democratic convention in Chicago failed to provide backing, Hines abandoned the effort.[41] Meanwhile, Sweet continued promoting the narrative, informing his superiors that he was quelling a dangerous insurrection.[42] Levy argues that Sweet’s reports were self-serving since he had not acted to prevent troop movements earlier.[43]

On November 6, 1864, Brigadier General John Cook authorized Sweet to detain two Confederate agents in Chicago. Sweet alleged that Colonel Marmaduke and others were conspiring to free prisoners.[44] The identity of "Colonel Marmaduke" is questionable and may have been fabricated or mistaken.[44] Sweet proceeded to arrest several prominent individuals without warrants, including Charles Walsh of the pro-Southern group "Sons of Liberty," whereupon weapons and ammunition were found—though insufficient for the supposed plot involving 2,000 men.[45] Martial law was extended across Chicago by Sweet, resulting in the detention of 106 men, among them Judge Buckner Stith Morris.[45]

More than half of those arrested were released promptly; further searches uncovered additional arms.[46] Arrests persisted until mid-November, culminating in sixty-six individuals deemed leaders or participants. Sweet’s assertion that he apprehended leaders of southern Illinois draft resisters is unsupported by records.[47] Initially confined in a church, detainees were later transferred to Camp Douglas.[48]

Secretary of War Stanton approved Sweet’s measures; Generals Hooker and Cook provided reinforcement, and Governor Yates contributed militia forces totaling approximately 2,000 troops.[48] Additional arrests included Richard T. Semmes and Vincent Marmaduke, neither matching Sweet’s original allegations.[48] The military commission trial took place in Cincinnati rather than Chicago.[49] Mary Morris, spouse of Judge Morris, was detained by prosecutorial order but never charged—likely in exchange for testimony that ultimately cleared her husband.[50][51]

Sweet’s principal informant was John T. Shanks, a convicted felon and former Confederate prisoner who testified against those accused.[52] Sweet concealed Shanks’ involvement and falsely implicated Judge Morris in facilitating Shanks’ escape.[52] A letter from Sweet requesting remuneration approval for Shanks exists; however, no record of any response has been located.[51]

Although Shanks’ criminal past was disclosed during proceedings, numerous defendants were nevertheless convicted.[53] President Lincoln granted Sweet brevet brigadier general rank effective December 20, 1864; this promotion was confirmed by the Senate in February 1865.[54] Subsequently, Shanks became a "Galvanized Yankee" captain commanding Company I of the 6th U.S. Volunteer Infantry—the sole former Confederate prisoner commissioned as an officer.[55]

The expression "to hell in a hand basket" made its earliest known appearance in I. Windslow Ayer’s 1865 narrative of these events. Ayer credits Judge Morris with coining the phrase during an August Sons of Liberty meeting referencing prisoners at Camp Douglas.[56]

Late 1864 and 1865

By the end of 1864, the widespread outbreak of scurvy among inmates was attributed to Hoffman's directive to withhold vegetables, prompting surgeons to refuse sending convalescing prisoners back to the barracks. In October, reports indicated that 984 out of 7,402 detainees were ill. During November, repairs included shutting off water supply to both the camp and hospital, compelling prisoners to risk exposure to gunfire while collecting snow for essential needs.

In December 1864, prisoners from the decimated forces of Confederate General John Bell Hood arrived at the camp. These debilitated soldiers faced severe hardships, including being forced to stand outdoors in freezing conditions while guards looted their belongings. Although rations were scarce, they were adequate to keep prisoners "tolerably hungry."

Improvements in water piping enhanced latrine operations, and newly installed bathing and laundry facilities allowed inmates to maintain hygiene standards. Despite censorship efforts, mail delivery remained consistent, even reaching prisoners confined in the dungeon. While some sick inmates likely succumbed to cold due to insufficient hospital care, there is limited evidence of widespread deaths caused by freezing. In March 1865, prisoners were offered whiskey incentives to repair a damaged sewer pipe.

Camp authorities hired undertaker C. H. Jordan, who sold certain Confederate remains to medical institutions and interred others in shallow graves without coffins. Some bodies reportedly washed up along Lake Michigan’s shore, probably due to erosion exposing graves near the waterline. Jordan arranged the shipment of 143 bodies to Kentucky and claimed to have sent approximately 400 remains to families. Initially buried in unmarked paupers’ graves at Chicago’s City Cemetery (now Lincoln Park, Chicago), these remains were relocated in 1867 to Confederate Mound within Oak Woods Cemetery, Chicago, situated roughly south of Camp Douglas.

End of the war

After Robert E. Lee surrendered on April 9, 1865, a sufficient number of former Confederate prisoners enlisted in the U.S. Army, forming ten companies designated for frontier duty. Although hostilities had ceased, some mistreatment by guards continued briefly. On May 8, 1865, Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Sweet received orders to release all prisoners except those holding ranks above colonel. Prisoners who pledged allegiance were transported home; approximately 1,770 who refused were left behind without assistance. Guards withdrew on July 5, leaving only sixteen inmates in the camp hospital. Sweet resigned on September 19 and was succeeded briefly by Captain Edward R. P. Shurley and subsequently Captain E. C. Phetteplace as the final commander. By the war’s conclusion, Camp Douglas had processed around 26,060 Confederate soldiers.

Following the conflict’s end, the camp was closed; its 158 structures were dismantled by November 1865. The land was either sold or returned to previous owners by early 1866.

Fatalities

The recorded number of Confederate deaths at Camp Douglas is commonly reported as 4,454. The highest mortality occurred in early 1865, with 867 fatalities before the conclusion of the war, followed by thousands more during the prisoner releases in May and June. By July 5, 1865, only a limited number of inmates remained under medical care.

In 1892, the United Confederate Veterans of Chicago initiated fundraising efforts for a memorial at Oak Woods Cemetery, where the majority of Confederate deceased were relocated from City Cemetery and an adjacent smallpox burial ground. They estimated approximately 1,500 unidentified individuals interred there, implying a total close to 6,000. John Cox Underwood, representing the UCV, compiled over 4,700 names from various documents and approximated total burials at around 6,229. Later, Josiah Seymour Currey reported 6,129 Confederate graves at Oak Woods.

Contemporary estimates vary from the 4,243 names inscribed on the monument to as many as 7,000 deaths cited by some scholars. Due to incomplete records and handling procedures for remains, the most reliable figures suggest between 5,000 and 6,000 fatalities. Nearly half of those who died before April 1863 were never recovered; some remains near Lake Michigan may have been lost to the lake itself.

Camp Douglas has often been labeled the North’s "Andersonville" because of its harsh conditions and death count; however, it was among the largest and longest-running Union prison camps. Although it recorded more deaths than other Northern detention centers, its mortality rate was comparable or lower than most Union prisons and significantly less than Andersonville’s. Elmira Prison in New York exhibited a notably higher death rate—241 per thousand compared to Camp Douglas’s 44 per thousand—making Elmira a more fitting comparison to Andersonville regarding prisoner fatality rates.

Present day

Currently, most of the former Camp Douglas grounds are occupied by condominium developments. For many years, a nearby funeral home preserved prisoner records and displayed a Confederate flag at half-staff until it ceased operations on December 31, 2007. Since 2012, archaeological investigations have taken place twice yearly with involvement from DePaul University students and local volunteers. Founded in 2010, the Camp Douglas Restoration Foundation is dedicated to establishing a permanent museum on this historic site.

Further reading

  • Theodore J. Karamanski, Rally 'Round the Flag: Chicago and the Civil War, Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1993.
  • William G. Keady, "Experiences of Corporal J. G. Blanchard: Incidents of Prison Life at Camp Douglas", Southern Historical Society Papers 12, no. 6 (June 1884): 269–274. (Richmond, VA) Accessed September 21, 2010.
  • Meribah Knight, "Chicago's overlooked Civil War prison camp," WBEZ, March 11, 2015.
  • Edmund Bostwick Tuttle, The History of Camp Douglas: including official report of Gen. B.J. Sweet: with anecdotes of the rebel prisoners, J.R. Walsh, Chicago, 1865.
  • Ezra J. Warner, Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964.

External links

  1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy2933
  2. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy31
  3. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy34Kelly11
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy34
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy38
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Eisendrath41
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy37
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy39,47
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named abbreviation
  10. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy39
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy45
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy414350
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy49
  14. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy47
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Heidler344
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Heidler345
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy167
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy198
  19. ↑ Levy 1999, p. 175; Kelly 1989, pp. 62–63; Eisendrath 1960, p. 56
  20. ↑ Levy 1999, p. 190; Kelly 1989, p. 63
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy195
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy177
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy181
  24. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Kelly91
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy183
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy184
  27. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy184185
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy185
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy187
  30. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Kelly94
  31. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy193
  32. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy194
  33. ↑ Eicher & Eicher 2001, p. 207
  34. ↑ Eicher & Eicher 2001, p. 744
  35. ↑ Levy (1999), p. 257; Kelly (1989), pp. 67–69; Kelly refers to it as the Chicago Conspiracy, also known as the Northwest or North-West Conspiracy.
  36. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy259261
  37. ↑ Levy (1999), p. 277
  38. ↑ Kelly (1989), p. 69
  39. ↑ Eisendrath (1960), pp. 59–61
  40. ↑ Levy (1999), p. 260
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Levy (1999), p. 262
  42. ↑ Levy (1999), p. 263
  43. ↑ Levy (1999), pp. 264–265
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Levy (1999), p. 264
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Levy (1999), p. 265
  46. ↑ Levy (1999), p. 267
  47. ↑ Levy (1999), pp. 267–268
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Levy (1999), p. 268
  49. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy269
  50. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy271
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levy273
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Levy (1999), p. 272
  53. ↑ Levy (1999), pp. 273–275
  54. ↑ Eicher & Eicher (2001), p. 759; Kelly (1989), p. 72
  55. ↑ Brown (1985), p.162
  56. ↑ Ayer, I. Windslow, The Great North-Western Conspiracy in All Its Startling Details. Chicago: Rounds and James, 1865. p.47

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