Drug Abuse Resistance Education

Drug Abuse Resistance Education
	File:DARE logo.svg Official logo of D.A.R.E.
Company type	Educational initiative
Industry	Education, Drug prevention
Founded	1983
Founder	Daryl Gates, Harry Handler
Headquarters	Inglewood, California, United States
Area served	United States, United Kingdom (since 1995)
Products	Drug prevention education programs and curricula
Website	dare.org

Drug Abuse Resistance Education, commonly known as D.A.R.E., is an educational initiative launched in the United States in 1983 through a collaboration between then-LAPD Chief Daryl Gates and the Los Angeles Unified School District. The program's primary goal is to deter drug use, gang involvement, and violent conduct by providing police-led instruction within schools. During its height in the 1980s and 1990s, D.A.R.E. was implemented across approximately 75% of American school districts, with funding sourced from the federal government under the Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act of 1986. Its operational model involved law enforcement officers visiting elementary school classrooms to teach children how to resist peer pressure related to substances such as drugs, alcohol, tobacco, as well as behaviors like graffiti and tattooing.

Although widely embraced and supported by an annual budget exceeding $10 million in 2002, various research studies conducted from the 1990s onward raised doubts about D.A.R.E.’s effectiveness, with some findings suggesting it might have adverse effects. Despite these critiques, the program retained considerable political and public endorsement for many years due to its intuitive appeal. However, funding experienced a sharp decline following a 2003 General Accounting Office report that found no demonstrable impact on reducing illicit drug consumption.

D.A.R.E.’s promotional efforts included branded apparel such as t-shirts, which ironically became popular within certain drug subcultures. The organization’s headquarters continue to be located in Inglewood, California, and the program expanded internationally by entering the United Kingdom market in 1995. The official mascot representing D.A.R.E. is known as Daren the Lion.

History and purpose

Conceived as a demand-side approach to combat drug use amid the US war on drugs, D.A.R.E. was developed by LAPD Chief Daryl Gates alongside LAUSD Superintendent Harry Handler. The curriculum integrated anti-drug lectures with participatory components like training in refusal skills and self-confidence enhancement, delivered by police officers in uniform who also interacted informally with students. A distinctive aspect included officers showcasing sports cars confiscated from drug traffickers as tangible examples of drug-related consequences.

The instructional content was adapted from SMART, an anti-drug program originating at the University of Southern California; however, D.A.R.E. shifted the delivery responsibility from educators to law enforcement personnel to capitalize on police influence within communities.

From the early 1990s onward, empirical assessments consistently indicated no meaningful decline in drug use among participants; some research even pointed to increased substance use. Nevertheless, D.A.R.E. maintained significant market presence due to ongoing political support and public familiarity until funding reductions in the early 2000s reflected diminished financial viability.

Facing these challenges, D.A.R.E. revamped its approach in 2009 by implementing "Keepin' it REAL," a curriculum emphasizing interactive learning and broader decision-making skills rather than solely focusing on anti-drug messaging—aimed at enhancing program outcomes and regaining competitiveness within drug education initiatives.

Use of children as informants

Around 2004, D.A.R.E. officers began requesting students to complete confidential written surveys that included questions about their home environments. One lesson titled The Three R's: Recognize, Resist, Report encouraged children to notify friends, educators, or law enforcement if they discovered drugs in their households.

Additionally, officers were instructed to install a "D.A.R.E. Box" within classrooms where students could anonymously submit information or inquiries related to drugs. Any disclosures regarding drug use—whether lawful or illicit—were required to be reported by officers to school officials and police departments. In certain areas, this practice effectively positioned students as informants against their own family members.

In 1995, some parents compared D.A.R.E.’s presence in classrooms—featuring uniformed government agents collecting information about family life—to conditions reminiscent of the late Weimar Republic.

By 1997, the Future of Freedom Foundation observed that since D.A.R.E. officers were sworn law enforcement personnel, they were obligated to pursue leads arising from children's reports about relatives' drug involvement, resulting in children occasionally identifying suspected users by name.

1992 – Indiana University

A 1992 investigation by Indiana University, commissioned by educational authorities, revealed that students who completed the D.A.R.E. program exhibited notably higher usage rates of hallucinogenic substances compared to those who did not participate.

1994 – RTI International

In 1994, a team of three researchers from RTI International analyzed eight robust quantitative studies assessing D.A.R.E.'s impact. Their findings indicated that the program's long-term effectiveness remained uncertain due to methodological challenges like participant dropout in control groups and contamination issues. The report concluded that although D.A.R.E. provides substantial short-term information, it has minimal influence on actual drug use among students, with smaller, interactive interventions showing greater success.

In response, a revised D.A.R.E. curriculum focusing on active participation was trialed in 1993 and subsequently implemented nationwide. Despite these conclusions, the organization reportedly expended $41,000 attempting to block the widespread release of the RTI report and pursued legal measures to suppress its dissemination. The director of publication at the American Journal of Public Health noted efforts by D.A.R.E. to obstruct the report's publication and intimidate the journal.

1995 – California Department of Education

A 1995 report presented to the California Department of Education by Joel Brown determined that none of California’s drug education initiatives, including D.A.R.E., demonstrated effectiveness. Over 40% of students indicated they were "not at all" influenced by such programs, with negative or indifferent responses increasing as students progressed through grades. Some educators admitted that D.A.R.E. might have inadvertently increased students' drug exposure, potentially leading to earlier experimentation. Criticism focused on inefficient use of public funds and disappointing statewide outcomes.

1998 – National Institute of Justice

A 1998 report funded by the National Institute of Justice and conducted by researchers at the University of Maryland concluded that "D.A.R.E. does not succeed in reducing substance use." The study highlighted deficiencies in program content, instructional methods, and reliance on police officers rather than educators for delivery. It recommended integrating D.A.R.E. into broader prevention strategies emphasizing social skills development. Subsequently, D.A.R.E. expanded its curriculum in this direction.

Research led by Dr. Dennis Rosenbaum in 1998 demonstrated that individuals who completed D.A.R.E. were more prone to consuming alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs. Psychologist Dr. William Colson argued that increased drug awareness generated by the program may have sparked curiosity and experimentation among students. These findings suggested that early exposure to drug information might unintentionally encourage substance use.

Additional evaluations funded by the National Institute of Justice and the California Legislative Analyst's Office reaffirmed by 2000 that the program failed to reduce substance use or meet its prevention objectives.

1999 – Lynam et al.

A decade-long study published in 2006 by Donald R. Lynam and colleagues involving 1,000 individuals who completed D.A.R.E. found no enduring measurable benefits from the program. While some short-term shifts in attitudes toward drugs were observed immediately after participation, these changes did not last until age 20.

2001 – Office of the Surgeon General

In 2001, U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher categorized D.A.R.E. as an "Ineffective Primary Prevention Program." A 2003 report from the U.S. General Accounting Office indicated that for certain groups, D.A.R.E. might be counterproductive; graduates sometimes displayed higher rates of drug use, suggesting a potential boomerang effect.

2007 – Perspectives on Psychological Science

The 2007 issue of Perspectives on Psychological Science, a journal published by APS, included D.A.R.E. among interventions that could potentially harm clients.

2009 – Texas A&M

Research conducted by Dave Gorman and Carol Weiss argued that D.A.R.E. was subjected to more rigorous evaluation criteria than other youth prevention programs, implying discrepancies arose more from data interpretation than from intervention quality itself. Since the U.S. Department of Education restricts funding for drug prevention initiatives lacking proven efficacy, D.A.R.E. America revised its curriculum in 2004 to comply with these standards.

The U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) has identified alternative regional programs; however, none have demonstrated sustained success or undergone comprehensive evaluation.

Reception

D.A.R.E.'s framework aligns closely with the "zero-tolerance orthodoxy" prevalent in U.S. drug policy, reflecting dominant perspectives among lawmakers and political leaders. The program asserts it fulfills demands from key stakeholders such as school districts, parents, and law enforcement agencies. Through a strategic public relations campaign emphasizing widespread acceptance while downplaying criticism, D.A.R.E. America has effectively promoted its initiative.

Psychologists at the University of Kentucky observed that ongoing support for D.A.R.E. illustrates reluctance to incorporate scientific findings into drug policy decisions. Marsha Rosenbaum from the Lindesmith Center criticized the program’s methodology as indoctrination rather than education, equating all forms of drug consumption—from tobacco to cocaine—as equally hazardous. The program’s popularity is partly fueled by extensive promotional merchandise including branded pens, dolls, bumper stickers, certificates, banners, rulers, pennants, coloring books, and T-shirts distributed to graduates.

D.A.R.E. has faced criticism for failing to verify certain website content accurately; notably promoting a satirical article falsely alleging deaths caused by edible marijuana candies in Colorado and at Coachella.

Motivation of the critics

D.A.R.E. America frequently dismisses critiques and independent research as biased or inaccurate attacks driven by pro-legalization groups with vested interests opposing prevention efforts. The organization accuses detractors of financial motivations related to competing programs and envy over D.A.R.E.’s achievements.

Rebuttal of statistics

Ronald J. Brogan—D.A.R.E.’s New York City fundraiser and spokesperson—acknowledged that program effects may wane over time but advocated expanding delivery into middle and high schools. Officials highlight strong public endorsement as a primary indicator of value despite limited empirical support.

New curriculum

In 2009, D.A.R.E. incorporated the culturally inclusive "keepin' it REAL" curriculum developed by Penn State researchers. This ten-lesson series addresses substance use through culturally relevant narratives representing European American, Mexican American, and African American experiences. Although critics note limited long-term evaluations, randomized controlled trials have shown effectiveness in reducing substance use across various ethnic groups and grade levels.

By 2013, SAMHSA rated its readiness for dissemination as moderate (1.5 out of 4). Additional studies found that intervening solely during middle school was as effective as combining elementary with middle school programs.

Following Washington state’s legalization of cannabis via Initiative 502, D.A.R.E. removed cannabis-related education from its fifth-grade curriculum there due to research suggesting early exposure to unfamiliar substances may increase curiosity rather than discourage usage.

Ironic response

Beginning in the 1990s, "D.A.R.E. To Keep Kids Off Drugs" T-shirts and merchandise gained popularity as an ironic symbol within drug culture and countercultural movements. According to a Vice article, the program’s logo and acronym may unintentionally imply daring experimentation with drugs itself. Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian mentioned wearing such a T-shirt in 2019, underscoring its cultural significance.

External links