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Eiffel Tower

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Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel
IndustryEngineering and construction
Founded1887
FounderGustave Eiffel
Headquarters
Paris
,
France
ProductsEiffel Tower

The Eiffel Tower (; ) is a lattice structure made of wrought iron located on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It takes its name from engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose firm was responsible for its design and construction between 1887 and 1889. The tower was erected as the central attraction of the 1889 World's Fair, commemorating the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution.

Often referred to as "La dame de fer" ("Iron Lady"), the tower initially encountered disapproval from French artists and intellectuals but has since evolved into an internationally recognised symbol and one of the most iconic landmarks worldwide. In 2022, it welcomed 5,889,000 visitors, ranking as the most frequented paid monument globally—6.91 million people climbed it in 2015. The structure received protection as a in 1964 and was incorporated into the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as "Paris, Banks of the Seine" in 1991.

Reaching a height of , roughly equivalent to an 81-storey building, it stands as Paris's tallest edifice. Each side of its square base measures . Upon its completion, it overtook the Washington Monument to become the tallest man-made construction on Earth, a record it held for 41 years until New York’s Chrysler Building surpassed it in 1930. The installation of a broadcasting antenna in 1957 extended its height beyond that of the Chrysler Building. When excluding antennas, it ranks as France’s second tallest freestanding structure after the Millau Viaduct.

The tower comprises three public levels, with dining establishments located on the first two floors. Its highest platform at serves as the tallest observation deck accessible to the public within the European Union. Visitors may ascend by stairs or elevator; reaching the second level involves climbing more than 600 steps in total. Access to the summit is typically via elevator only and includes a private apartment constructed for Gustave Eiffel, furnished by Jean Lachaise, which hosted notable guests such as Thomas Edison.

Origin

The concept of the Eiffel Tower originated with Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, senior engineers employed by the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel. The tower was envisioned as a focal point for the 1889 Exposition Universelle celebrating the centenary of the French Revolution. Koechlin initially drafted plans for a "great pylon" featuring four lattice girders converging at its apex. Gustave Eiffel was initially reluctant but ultimately endorsed further design development, involving Stephen Sauvestre, head of architecture, who contributed ornamental arches and a glass pavilion.

This updated design secured Eiffel’s commitment; he obtained patent rights shared with Koechlin, Nouguier, and Sauvestre. Exhibited at the 1884 Exhibition of Decorative Arts, Eiffel introduced these plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils in March 1885, highlighting both their technical innovation and symbolic value as an emblem of industry and science.

Progress remained slow until 1886 when shifts in political leadership led to budget approval for the exposition. Minister Édouard Lockroy revised competition criteria to favour a 300-meter metal tower on Champ de Mars, positioning Eiffel’s proposal as the leading candidate. A commission subsequently rejected competing designs as either unfeasible or incomplete.

A contract was finalized on 8 January 1887, with Eiffel personally investing 1.5 million francs toward construction—less than one-quarter of the projected total cost of 6.5 million francs—while retaining exclusive commercial rights for two decades. He established a separate company for this venture, contributing half of its capital himself.

Funding partially originated from Crédit Industriel et Commercial (CIC), which concurrently extended exploitative loans to Haiti connected to a contentious indemnity agreement requiring Haiti to compensate French slaveowners following its revolution. Although CIC financed part of the Eiffel Tower’s construction, it also extracted considerable revenue from Haiti’s economy during this era, thereby constraining that nation’s economic progress.

Artists' opposition

The proposed tower encountered considerable controversy, with skeptics questioning its practicality and condemning it on artistic grounds. Prior to this project, no edifice had surpassed heights of 200 or 300 meters, causing many to deem such a structure unachievable. This dispute mirrored a larger French debate pitting architectural ideals against engineering innovation. As construction commenced at the Champ de Mars, a "Committee of Three Hundred"—representing one member per meter of the tower's planned height—was established, led by architect Charles Garnier and including renowned figures such as William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod, and Jules Massenet. Their manifesto, titled "Artists against the Eiffel Tower," was addressed to Minister of Works Adolphe Alphand and published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:

Gustave Eiffel responded by drawing a parallel between his tower and the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest structure ever constructed by humanity. Should it not be magnificent in its own right? And why would something majestic in Egypt be deemed ugly and absurd in Paris?"[1] Support for the project came from Édouard Lockroy, who pointed out that the protests were moot since construction was already underway.

Interestingly, Garnier himself had examined the plans without raising objections. Eiffel stressed that evaluating the tower merely from drawings was premature and highlighted that its placement at Champ de Mars ensured it would not overshadow Parisian landmarks. He made an aesthetic argument: "Are not the laws governing natural forces always in harmony with hidden principles of beauty?"[2]

While some dissenters eventually accepted the tower, others maintained their opposition.[3] Notably, Guy de Maupassant is said to have frequented its restaurant daily because it was the sole location in Paris where the tower could not be seen.[4]

By 1918, the Eiffel Tower had evolved into a symbol representing both Paris and France itself, exemplified by Guillaume Apollinaire’s nationalist calligram reflecting sentiments during World War I.[5] Today, it remains an emblematic example of structural art, prominently featured across cinema and literature.

Construction

Foundation work commenced on 28 January 1887. The east and south legs were supported by four concrete slabs each, whereas the west and north legs required more intricate foundations due to their closeness to the Seine River. These foundations involved long, diameter compressed-air caissons sunk to a depth of , which supported thick concrete slabs capped with limestone blocks anchoring the iron framework. Each foundation shoe was fixed with bolts measuring in diameter and in length. The foundation phase concluded by 30 June, enabling the start of ironwork assembly.

Extensive preparatory efforts occurred behind the scenes, including creating 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed ones for a total of 18,038 components. The design’s complex geometry demanded exact rivet hole positioning within , with angles measured to one arcsecond precision. Parts were manufactured at a Levallois-Perret factory; no drilling or shaping took place onsite—any misfitting pieces were sent back for correction. Assembly required joining all 18,038 elements using approximately 2.5 million rivets.

Initially, construction of each leg proceeded as cantilever structures, paused midway to the first platform level to build timber scaffolding. This approach fueled public doubt and negative media coverage concerning structural integrity and visual appeal; prominent critics such as Charles Garnier and Alexandre Dumas voiced strong disapproval. Despite opposition regarding design and siting, work continued using small "creeper" cranes installed inside each leg along guides designed for lifting operations.

By March 1888, the crucial phase of connecting the legs at the first platform was accomplished. Hydraulic jacks capable of exerting forces up to 800 tonnes enabled precise alignment corrections; legs had been intentionally constructed slightly steeper than final angles and rested on sandboxes atop scaffolding supports. Approximately 300 workers operated onsite; thanks to stringent safety protocols—including movable gangways and protective guardrails—only one fatal accident occurred throughout construction.

Inauguration and the 1889 Exposition

By the end of March 1889, the tower's structural assembly was finalized. On 31 March, Gustave Eiffel escorted government dignitaries and members of the press to the summit. As the lifts were not yet operational, the climb on foot took more than an hour, during which Eiffel detailed various aspects of the structure. Only a few reached the pinnacle, where Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour while a 25-gun salute was fired.

The tower welcomed visitors nine days following the exposition's opening on 6 May, despite lift installations remaining incomplete. It rapidly drew close to 30,000 guests who ascended the 1,710 steps before lift service commenced on 26 May. Admission fees varied between 2 and 5 francs depending on the observation level, with reduced prices offered on Sundays. By the conclusion of the event, total attendance had reached 1,896,987.

Illumination at night featured hundreds of gas lamps lighting up the tower along with a beacon casting red, white, and blue rays. Two searchlights spotlighted exposition halls, and a cannon atop signaled daily opening and closing times.

The tower’s second floor accommodated Le Figaro newspaper's office and printing press, producing a special edition titled Le Figaro de la Tour. At the summit, a post office operated for sending commemorative letters and postcards. Visitors could also inscribe impressions on paper sheets that were replaced daily; Eiffel described this collection as "truly curious."

Prominent attendees included the Prince of Wales, actress Sarah Bernhardt, showman "Buffalo Bill" Cody—whose Wild West exhibition was part of the fair—and inventor Thomas Edison. Edison toured Eiffel’s private apartment at the top and presented him with a phonograph, then an advanced technological device. He signed the guestbook commending Eiffel’s engineering prowess.

Eiffel utilized his summit apartment for meteorological studies and experiments examining air resistance on falling objects.

Subsequent Events

Initially granted a 20-year permit, Eiffel's authorization required dismantling the tower in 1909 and transferring ownership back to the City of Paris. However, its strategic importance for early 20th-century technologies like radio telegraphy ensured its preservation beyond this period. Starting in 1910, it functioned as a hub for the International Time Service.

For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, French company Fives-Lille upgraded lifts in the eastern and western legs with hydraulic-powered systems reaching up to the second level. The lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by stairs; similarly, the south pillar lift was dismantled thirteen years later. Both first and second floors were redesigned to expand visitor capacity.

On 19 October 1901, aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont earned a prize of 100,000 francs by piloting his No.6 airship from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back within thirty minutes.

Beginning in 1910, time signals were broadcast daily from the tower by the Paris Observatory across a radius of approximately 5,000 kilometers. This helped standardize Universal Time through wireless telegraphy. France adopted a variant of Greenwich Mean Time in 1911; further international coordination was pursued by the International Time Bureau, founded in 1912 but delayed due to World War I.

In that same year, Father Theodor Wulf’s measurements atop the tower contributed to identifying cosmic rays. In 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt tragically died testing his parachute invention by leaping from the first floor. During World War I, French forces used radio transmissions from the tower to disrupt German communications during the First Battle of the Marne in 1914.

The tower’s wireless station intercepted vital intelligence during WWI, including a coded message in 1917 that played a role in capturing and executing spy Mata Hari.

Between 1925 and 1934, illuminated advertisements for Citroën transformed it into one of the tallest advertising platforms worldwide. In April 1935, experimental low-resolution television broadcasts were conducted using shortwave transmitters; later that year saw installation of an improved system.

In 1925, con artist Victor Lustig infamously "sold" the tower twice under false pretenses. In February 1926, pilot Leon Collet perished attempting to fly beneath it. A bust honoring Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at its base in 1929. The tower lost its status as tallest man-made structure in 1930 when New York’s Chrysler Building surpassed it. The decorative arcade surrounding the first level was removed in 1938.

During Nazi occupation in 1940, French resistance fighters severed lift cables; these remained unrepaired until after World War II ended. German troops hoisted a swastika flag atop but replaced it with a smaller version after it blew away. Adolf Hitler refrained from climbing; General Dietrich von Choltitz defied orders to destroy Paris and its landmark prior to liberation in August 1944.

A fire damaged television transmission equipment at the summit in January 1956; repairs extended over a year and included adding a new radio antenna in 1957. The tower was classified as a historical monument by Minister André Malraux in 1964. A new lift system was installed in the north pillar in 1965.

In 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau reportedly negotiated relocating the tower temporarily for Expo 67; however, operators vetoed these plans fearing permanent loss.

From 1982 through 1986, comprehensive modernization replaced original hydraulic lifts with electric motors and automated controls. Travel times were significantly shortened; emergency staircases were added for safety. The Jules Verne restaurant received an electric Otis lift in 1983.

Remarkable stunts include Robert Moriarty flying his Beechcraft Bonanza beneath it in March 1984; A.J. Hackett performing early bungee jumps from its summit in 1987; and Thierry Devaux executing acrobatic bungee jumps from its second floor in 1991.

For its "Countdown to Year 2000" celebration on New Year’s Eve 1999, flashing lights and searchlights were installed creating a striking nighttime beacon accompanied by fireworks displays. An exhibition commemorating this event is displayed on the first floor. Sparkling light shows continued intermittently into the early twenty-first century with plans for permanent illumination.

The tower welcomed its billionth visitor on November 28, 2002 and has since operated near maximum capacity of approximately seven million visitors annually. Seasonal features include an ice rink on the first level since 2004 and installation of glass flooring during refurbishment completed in 2014.

Materials

The Eiffel Tower's wrought iron structure weighs approximately 7,300 tonnes, with additional elements such as lifts, shops, and antennas bringing the total mass to around 10,100 tonnes. Illustrating the design's material efficiency, if all the iron were melted down, it would cover the tower's 125-meter square base to a depth of just 6.25 centimeters, given iron's density of 7.8 tonnes per cubic meter. The volume of air within a cubic space measuring 324 m by 125 m by 125 m surrounding the tower weighs about 6,200 tonnes, nearly equaling the iron’s weight. Temperature variations cause the tower’s summit to shift laterally by up to 18 centimeters due to thermal expansion.

Wind and Weather Adaptations

Although initially criticized for favoring aesthetics over engineering principles, Eiffel drew on his expertise in bridge construction to emphasize wind resistance in the tower’s design. In an 1887 interview with Le Temps, he highlighted that the tower’s curved contours were precisely calculated to achieve both structural strength and visual appeal.

Rather than relying solely on rigid mathematical formulas, Eiffel employed graphical techniques and empirical observations to guarantee the tower’s stability against wind forces. The tower’s distinctive tapering form embodies this methodology; every element is deliberately overengineered to withstand wind pressure, with the upper sections treated as if they had no lattice openings. Subsequent studies describe the design as a balance between wind loads and internal stresses modeled by a non-linear integral equation.

During strong gusts, the structure can sway up to 9 centimeters.

Ground Level

Each of the four legs includes staircases and elevators providing access to the first two floors. The elevator located in the south leg leads directly to the second-floor restaurant, which is open to visitors.

First Floor

Visitors can reach the first floor by either stairs or elevator. Initially, this level housed three dining establishments—French, Russian, and Flemish—as well as an "Anglo-American Bar." After the exposition ended, the Flemish restaurant was converted into a theatre seating 250 guests. Currently, this floor accommodates a restaurant named , along with other amenities.

Second Floor

Accessible via stairs or elevator, the second floor features , a Michelin-starred fine dining venue served by a dedicated elevator in the south leg. Since 2019, it has been overseen by three-star chef Frédéric Anton, succeeding Alain Ducasse who managed it from 2007 to 2017. The restaurant pays tribute to science-fiction author Jules Verne through its name.

Third Floor

The topmost level is reachable by elevator and open to the public. Originally designed for scientific laboratories and Gustave Eiffel’s private apartment, this space now offers visitors a glimpse into its historical ambiance with period furnishings and mannequins representing Eiffel and his guests.

Between 1937 and 1981, a restaurant operated near this summit but was removed due to concerns about structural stress caused by its weight leading to sagging. The establishment was sold and relocated first to New York and subsequently New Orleans, where it was reconstructed as a restaurant and event venue in the Garden District. Presently, a champagne bar occupies this top floor.

Elevators

The configuration of elevators within the tower has undergone numerous modifications over time. Factoring in cable elasticity and alignment procedures, each elevator round trip averages approximately 8 minutes and 50 seconds, including roughly 1 minute and 15 seconds spent at each stop and about 1 minute traveling between floors. The original hydraulic lift mechanism is exhibited in a small museum at the base of both east and west legs; however, public access is often limited due to maintenance activities. Visitors exiting at the north tower can observe its rope-driven system.

Ensuring reliable and safe passenger transport was a primary concern for the Exposition’s organizing committee. While some visitors could ascend stairs to reach lower levels, elevators were essential for accessing higher floors efficiently.

Elevators serving the first floor were installed by widening the legs and incorporating straight tracks. The French firm Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape secured contracts for two elevators positioned in the east and west legs. Their design utilized endless chains composed of rigid links counterbalanced by lead weights; these chains propelled cars from below within enclosed shafts designed to prevent buckling. Large sprockets at the bottom and smaller ones at the top guided chain movement.

Installing elevators reaching the second floor presented greater challenges due to curved tracks. No French companies bid on this contract; consequently, in July 1887 Otis Brothers & Company was awarded it despite initial resistance over foreign material restrictions. Otis had already begun preliminary designs anticipating such an opportunity.

Otis’s elevator car featured two stacked compartments each accommodating up to 25 passengers with an operator stationed on an external platform at the first-floor level. Power was supplied by an inclined hydraulic ram housed inside one leg of the tower that moved a carriage fitted with sheaves multiplying piston stroke rather than force. Hydraulic pressure was maintained via a reservoir located on the second floor; water expelled from cylinders was recycled using pumps situated at the base of the south leg. This system also powered lifts ascending to the first floor.

For transport between second and third floors, Léon Edoux provided original hydraulic elevators employing two 81-meter rams mounted on level two extending halfway toward level three. One car traveled atop these rams while cables linked it via pulleys at level three to a second car; passengers transferred between cars midway using a gangway. Each car weighed approximately 10 tonnes and could carry up to 65 passengers.

Engraved names

To pay tribute to the achievements of French scientists, engineers, and mathematicians, Gustave Eiffel had the names of 72 distinguished individuals inscribed on the tower. This "scientific invocation" was intended as a response to criticism from artists. Although these inscriptions were painted over during the early 1900s, they were carefully restored between 1986 and 1987 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, the organization responsible for managing the tower.

Aesthetics

The tower features a gradient of three paint tones, transitioning from lighter shades at the summit to darker hues at the base, designed to harmonize with the Parisian skyline. Initially coated in a reddish-brown color, it was repainted in 1968 with "Eiffel Tower Brown," a bronze shade. For the duration of the 2024 Summer Olympics hosted in Paris, the structure was temporarily adorned with gold paint to celebrate the occasion.

Following the conclusion of the 2024 Games, Mayor Anne Hidalgo suggested retaining the Olympic rings on the tower permanently. These rings, measuring 95 feet in width and 43 feet in height, were installed specifically for the Olympics and scheduled for removal after the Paralympics. Hidalgo's proposal drew objections from both members of the Eiffel family and local residents who expressed concerns about modifying this protected historic monument. To accommodate long-term display, the original rings weighing 30 tons would be replaced by lighter versions.

Apart from structural components, four ornamental grill-work arches—originating from Sauvestre's designs—serve purely decorative purposes. They enhance the tower's visual impact and create an impressive entrance for expositions.

Contrary to popular belief that the tower is visible from every window in Paris, city zoning laws restrict building heights to seven stories, meaning only select taller structures provide unobstructed views of this landmark.

Maintenance

To protect against corrosion, maintenance requires applying approximately 60 tons of paint every seven years. Since its erection, the tower has undergone at least nineteen repainting cycles as of 2024, with the most recent occurring in 2010. Lead-based paint was utilized until 2001 but was discontinued due to environmental concerns.

Communications

The tower has supported radio broadcasting since the early 1900s. Up until the 1950s, antenna wires extended from its cupola to anchors located on Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars, linked to longwave transmitters housed in bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio facility was established near its southern pillar and continues to operate today. On November 20, 1913, the Paris Observatory employed the tower to send wireless signals to the United States Naval Observatory in Virginia as part of longitude measurement efforts between Paris and Washington, D.C. Currently, it serves as a transmission site for both radio and digital television broadcasts.

FM radio

Frequency kW Service
87.8 MHz 10 France Inter
89.0 MHz 10 RFI Paris
89.9 MHz 6 TSF Jazz
90.4 MHz 10 Nostalgie
90.9 MHz 4 Chante France

Digital television

The first television antenna was mounted in 1957, increasing the tower’s height by . Additional modifications made in 2000 added further height extensions, resulting in a total elevation of . Analog television transmissions were discontinued on March 8, 2011.

Frequency VHF UHF kW Service
182.25 MHz 6 — 100 Canal+
479.25 MHz — 22 500 France 2
503.25 MHz — 25 500 TF1
527.25 MHz — 28 500 France 3
543.25 MHz — 30 100 France 5
567.25 MHz — 33 100 M6


Variations in Height

The pinnacle height of the Eiffel Tower has experienced several modifications over the years, as outlined below:

From To Height (m) Height (ft) Type of addition Notes
1889 1956 312.27 1,025 Flagpole Architectural height was approximately 300 m (980 ft); held the record as the tallest freestanding structure globally until the Chrysler Building surpassed it in 1930; remained the tallest tower until overtaken by the KCTV Broadcast Tower in 1956.
1957 1991 320.75 1,052 Antenna Installation of a broadcast antenna in 1957 elevated it to the tallest tower status until the Tokyo Tower opened in 1958.
1991 1994 317.96 1,043 Antenna modification
1994 2000 318.7 1,046 Antenna modification
2000 2022 324 1,063 Antenna modification
2022 Present 330 1,083 Antenna modification A Digital radio antenna was installed on March 15, 2022.


Structures surpassing the Eiffel Tower

When completed in 1889, the Eiffel Tower held the title of the tallest structure worldwide until the Chrysler Building reached its full height in New York City in 1929. It lost its position as tallest tower to the Tokyo Tower in 1958 but continues to be France's tallest freestanding (non-guyed) construction.

Lattice towers exceeding Eiffel Tower's height

Name Pinnacle height Year built Country Location (City) Additional information
Tokyo Skytree 634 m (2,080 ft) 2011 Japan Tokyo
Kyiv TV Tower 385 m (1,263 ft) 1973 Ukraine Kyiv
Dragon Tower 336 m (1,102 ft) 2000 China Harbin
Tokyo Tower 333 m (1,093 ft) 1958 Japan Tokyo
WITI TV Tower 329.4 m (1,081 ft) 1962 United States Shorewood, Wisconsin
St. Petersburg TV Tower 326 m (1,070 ft) 1962 Russia Saint Petersburg


French structures taller than the Eiffel Tower

Name Pinnacle height Year erected Type of structure Location (Town) Notes
Longwave transmitter Allouis 350 m (1,150 ft) 1974 Guyed mast Allouis
HWU transmitter 350 m (1,150 ft) 1971 Guyed mast Rosnay Military VLF transmitter; consists of multiple masts
Viaduc de Millau 343 m (1,125 ft) 2004 Bridge pillar Millau
TV Mast Niort-Maisonnay 330 m (1,080 ft) 1978 Guyed mast Niort
Transmitter Le Mans-Mayet 342 m (1,122 ft) 1993 Guyed mast Mayet
La Regine transmitter 330 m (1,080 ft) 1973 Guyed mast Saissac Military VLF transmitter
Transmitter Roumoules 330 m (1,080 ft) 1974 Guyed mast Roumoules Backup longwave transmission mast; insulated from ground


Transportation

The closest Paris Métro stop to the tower is Bir-Hakeim, while the nearest Réseau Express Régional station is Champ de Mars–Tour Eiffel station. The tower itself is situated where quai Branly meets the Pont d'Iéna.

Visitor Numbers

Since its inauguration in 1889, the tower has welcomed more than 300 million visitors. In 2015 alone, it attracted 6.91 million guests, ranking it as the highest-paid monument in terms of attendance worldwide. On average, around 25,000 people ascend the structure daily, frequently leading to lengthy waiting lines.

Copyright on Illumination

The image and structure of the Eiffel Tower have been part of the public domain since 1993, which marked 70 years after Eiffel's passing. Nonetheless, a French court decision in June 1990 recognized the special lighting installation created for the tower’s centennial in 1989 as an "original visual creation" subject to copyright protection. This judgment was confirmed by France's Court of Cassation in 1992. The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) regards any lighting display on the tower as a distinct copyrighted work. As a result, the Société Nouvelle d’Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE) maintains that reproducing commercial images of the illuminated tower at night without authorization is prohibited within France and certain other jurisdictions. This limitation affects the availability of nighttime photographs on stock image platforms and in media outlets.

This approach to copyright enforcement has sparked debate. Stéphane Dieu, who served as SNTE’s Director of Documentation in 2005, explained that their primary goal is to control commercial exploitation and prevent unauthorized use. In 2002, SNTE reportedly generated over €1 million from copyright licensing fees. However, this policy also restricts non-commercial and semi-commercial uses of images depicting the tower’s illumination.

To date, no legal case has challenged this copyright claim, nor have there been attempts to pursue individuals sharing nighttime photos online globally. Commercial applications—such as magazine features, film promotional materials, or packaging—typically require prior approval.

French legislation permits incidental inclusion of copyrighted works within photographs when they serve only as background elements rather than primary subjects, aligning with principles similar to de minimis. Therefore, SETE’s ability to enforce copyright claims on photos capturing Paris scenes that incidentally include the lit tower may be limited.

The designer behind the lighting installation, Pierre Bideau, passed away in 2021; under artistic copyright provisions, this lighting design remains protected until 2091—70 years after his death.

Replicas

The Eiffel Tower’s distinctive silhouette has inspired numerous copies around the globe. One early replica is Blackpool Tower in England, commissioned by Blackpool’s mayor Sir John Bickerstaffe after he saw the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition. Opened in 1894, it reaches a height of . Another prominent example is Tokyo Tower in Japan, completed in 1958 as a communications structure directly influenced by Eiffel's design. The Petřín Lookout Tower located in Prague also draws inspiration from it.

In the United States, several scaled versions exist: a half-size model at Paris Las Vegas, Nevada; one erected in Paris, Texas in 1993; and two one-third scale replicas at amusement parks Kings Island (Ohio) and Kings Dominion (Virginia), which opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. China features two replicas at one-third scale as well, while Durango, Mexico has one donated by its local French community. Numerous other copies are scattered throughout Europe.

A National Geographic Channel program from 2011 estimated that building a full-scale replica today would cost roughly US$480 million—more than ten times the inflation-adjusted original construction cost of approximately US$40 million (in 2018 dollars).

See also

Bibliography

External links

  1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Souriau
  2. ↑ Loyrette, 1985 p. 176.
  3. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named times1_4_89
  4. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Jonnes
  5. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Greet
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