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Film Booking Offices of America

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Film Booking Offices of America
Company typePrivate
IndustryFilm production and distribution
PredecessorRobertson-Cole
Founded1918
FounderHarry F. Robertson, Rufus S. Cole
Defunct1929
FateMerged into RKO Pictures
Headquarters
Los Angeles, California
,
United States
Area served
United States
Key people
Joseph P. Kennedy (chairman)
ProductsFilms (silent era, low-budget Westerns, dramas, comedies)

Film Booking Offices of America (FBO), officially known as FBO Pictures Corp., was a prominent American film studio during the silent film era, recognized as a mid-tier producer and distributor primarily focused on low-budget productions. The company originated in 1918 under the name Robertson-Cole, initially functioning as an Anglo-American import-export enterprise. It began distributing films in the United States that December and established a production facility in Los Angeles by 1920. Later that year, Robertson-Cole joined forces with East Coast financier Joseph P. Kennedy, who significantly influenced the firm’s strategic direction. In 1922, a corporate restructuring led to the rebranding of the company as FBO, unifying its production and distribution divisions.

FBO concentrated on serving small-town American audiences, specializing in Westerns, romantic dramas, action pictures, and comedic shorts. Under Kennedy’s guidance, the studio secured contracts with notable Western stars such as Fred Thomson, who rose to become one of Hollywood’s leading figures by 1925. Other distinguished performers during the Robertson-Cole period included Pauline Frederick and Sessue Hayakawa; later, talents like Evelyn Brent, Richard Talmadge, and Tom Tyler—who starred in 29 cowboy films for FBO—became key players. Alberta Vaughn led five short film series, while directors including Ralph Ince, William Seiter, and Emory Johnson contributed extensively to the studio’s prolific output. Film adaptations of Gene Stratton-Porter’s novels consistently ranked among FBO’s top box office performers from 1925 onward.

In 1926, Joseph P. Kennedy spearheaded a consortium that acquired FBO, actively managing the company with frequent visits to California and fostering significant business expansion. Exhibitors hailed The Keeper of the Bees (1925 film), adapted from Stratton-Porter’s novel, as a major commercial success. Early in 1928, Kennedy replaced Fred Thomson with leading silent Western star Tom Mix. By August of that year, FBO embraced cutting-edge technology by releasing Hollywood’s second feature-length "talkie" utilizing RCA Photophone sound-on-film equipment. Two months later, Kennedy collaborated with RCA executive David Sarnoff to merge FBO with the Keith-Albee-Orpheum theater chain, forming RKO, a major studio during Hollywood’s Golden Age. FBO’s assets were absorbed into RKO, resulting in its dissolution in early 1929.

The R-C years

The entity that evolved into FBO began as Robertson-Cole, an importer-exporter and film distributor headquartered in London and New York, established in 1918 by Englishman Harry F. Robertson and American Rufus S. Cole. Initially dealing in American trucks, automobiles, automotive parts, and Bell & Howell motion picture equipment, its early film distribution efforts targeted markets in Northern Europe, South Asia, and Latin America. Operating from its U.S. office, R-C Pictures commenced American film distribution late in 1918 by acquiring titles from independent producers and supplying them to Exhibitors Mutual Distributing—a successor to Mutual Film. In November of that year, R-C secured exclusive distribution rights for Exhibitors Mutual and released its first films the following month. For higher-quality content, it purchased films featuring actor Sessue Hayakawa, whose productions were created by his own company, Haworth Pictures Corporation. Additional producers tailored films specifically for R-C distribution: B.B. Features, Jesse D. Hampton Productions, National Film Corporation, and Winsome Stars. To supplement feature films, Robertson-Cole acquired various serials and shorts such as Supreme Comedies starring Harry Depp and Teddy Sampson, along with the biweekly series On the Borderland of Civilization by adventurers Martin Johnson. Toward the end of 1919, producer Frank Hall took over Exhibitors Mutual and integrated it into Hallmark Exchanges; in January 1920 Robertson-Cole purchased Hallmark itself, securing direct distribution rights for its films alongside plans for internal production.

In March 1920 Robertson-Cole convened its inaugural meeting for branch managers and field supervisors. At that time twenty-five films were playing nationwide theaters under its banner; top-tier releases carried the "Superior Pictures" label. The company’s initial feature productions included The Third Woman, directed by Charles Swickard featuring Carlyle Blackwell and Louise Lovely, alongside The Wonder Man, directed by John G. Adolfi with boxer Georges Carpentier in the lead role; this latter premiered on May 29 before wide release in July. While production ramped up, Robertson-Cole acquired roughly fifteen acres for a studio lot in Los Angeles's Colegrove district—soon incorporated into Hollywood—and purchased an additional 460 acres near Santa Monica for outdoor filming called the "R-C Ranch". By September construction began on an administrative building designed with neoclassical architecture plus eight large sound stages at Colegrove. The first film shot there was the independent production Kismet (1920), directed by Louis J. Gasnier. As operations expanded, Hayakawa's production company was absorbed into Robertson-Cole.

Rufus Cole allied with Hallmark investor Joseph P. Kennedy, then working as a broker at Hayden Stone & Co., who founded Robertson-Cole Distributing Corporation of New England to oversee films in territories where he controlled theater chains. In February 1921 Robertson-Cole released its first official production: The Mistress of Shenstone, directed by Henry King starring former star Pauline Frederick. However, the company faced $5 million debt from acquiring the L.A. studio lot and struggled with high-interest loans due to limited credit availability typical for smaller studios at that time. Primary investor Graham's of London enlisted Kennedy to find a buyer; although he was unable to complete a sale or acquire ownership himself then, Kennedy secured a board position along with an advisory role offering potential commissions—laying the foundation for his deeper involvement in subsequent years.

A fresh corporate identity

In 1922, as its original founders withdrew, Robertson-Cole underwent reorganization and renamed its American distribution division to Film Booking Offices of America (FBO), which had already been responsible for releasing a variety of independent films. The West Coast production facility briefly retained the Robertson-Cole designation, but FBO soon emerged as the dominant brand for both film production and distribution activities. Trade publications from 1925 no longer referenced Robertson-Cole, and by 1927, the corporate entity was officially known as FBO Pictures Corp. Between May 1922 and October 1923, investor Pat Powers, who brought prior experience from Universal, effectively steered the company and was credited on numerous releases as "P. A. Powers Presents." Notable external collaborators included Chester Bennett Productions, Hunt Stromberg Productions, and Tiffany Productions. Utilizing his network, Joseph Kennedy secured a distribution arrangement for Western films featuring Fred Thomson, an up-and-coming star at the time. The studio’s in-house boxing short series Fighting Blood, headlined by George O'Hara, achieved considerable acclaim. Alberta Vaughn specialized in two-reel comedic shorts, which constituted a significant portion of FBO’s film slate.

After Powers’s exit, H.C.S. Thomson from Graham's assumed the role of managing director. In 1924, B.P. Fineman was named production chief; his wife Evelyn Brent joined FBO from Fox to become the studio’s principal dramatic actress. Fred Thomson’s growing popularity resulted in a lucrative contract in April 1925 worth $6,000 weekly—ranking him just behind Tom Mix as the highest-paid cowboy actor—and he was granted his own production unit. By December 1925, FBO’s leading box office performers included A Girl of the Limberlost, Broken Laws, along with three Westerns starring Fred Thomson.

FBO’s distribution strategy concentrated on small-town exhibitors and independent theaters unaffiliated with major studio chains. Its production slate primarily consisted of low-budget Westerns, action pictures, melodramas, and comedy shorts. From early 1920 through late 1928, under either Robertson-Cole or FBO Pictures branding, the company produced upwards of 400 feature films. Higher-budget "special" productions were marketed under the FBO "Gold Bond" label and targeted larger venues; between 1924 and 1926, seven films starring Evelyn Brent and two additional premium titles were released through Gothic Pictures or Gothic Productions. Operating without extensive corporate resources or an owned theater chain—and geographically removed from its London-based owners—FBO consistently struggled with cash flow issues due to dependence on short-term loans carrying high interest rates.

Kennedy assumes leadership

While working at the Hayden, Stone investment firm, Kennedy asserted his ability to surpass the achievements of Hollywood studio executives. In 1925, he assembled a group of investors headed by Boston attorney Guy Currier, department store magnate Louis Kirstein, and stockyards entrepreneur Frederick H. Prince. Kennedy proposed $1 million to gain a controlling interest in Film Booking Offices (FBO). Although initially declined due to previous $7 million commitments from Graham and Lloyd's of London, the offer was accepted in February 1926. Operating from FBO’s New York offices, Kennedy addressed cash-flow challenges by founding Cinema Credits Corporation to obtain advantageous financing terms. After being appointed chairman of FBO in March, he relocated to Hollywood, where he reduced reliance on independent producers and optimized company operations. Will Hays, president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association, regarded Kennedy as a representation of Wall Street confidence and American principles within the film sector.

Following the exit of studio head Fineman to First National Pictures, Kennedy recruited Edwin King from Famous Players–Lasky and took direct control over both creative direction and financial management. The label "Joseph P. Kennedy Presents" appeared on more than one hundred films, solidifying FBO’s position as a consistently profitable smaller studio specializing in inexpensive productions with widespread appeal to Main Street audiences. Kennedy characterized this approach as akin to being the "Woolworth and Ford of the motion picture industry," rather than aspiring to be "Tiffany." FBO’s catalog was dominated by westerns, action movies, and melodramas, featuring stars such as Fred Thomson who commanded weekly salaries of $15,000 to maintain a competitive edge.

The average cost for producing an FBO feature was about $50,000—substantially less than major studios like Fox at $190,000 or MGM at $275,000. In 1927, as part of cost reduction efforts, FBO discontinued long-term contracts with writers in favor of freelance arrangements. Additionally, Kennedy struck a partnership with Paramount to co-finance four "super westerns" starring Thomson; Paramount covered Thomson’s salary while production continued at FBO’s facilities, with profits shared between the companies.

During 1927 alone, FBO released fifty-one films; theater owners identified adaptations of Gene Stratton-Porter’s works alongside Thomson westerns as top box office performers. This combination of low-budget filmmaking paired with strategic star investments formed the foundation of FBO’s competitive strength and consistent financial results under Kennedy’s stewardship.

Introduction of sound technology

The introduction of sound film marked a pivotal shift for the studio’s future. Toward the end of 1927, negotiations with the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) culminated in a January 1928 declaration that RCA, along with its parent company General Electric and shareholder Westinghouse, had acquired a significant stake in FBO, purchasing shares at $24 each—four times their value from two years earlier. RCA’s general manager David Sarnoff took a seat on FBO’s board.[1] Simultaneously, Joseph Kennedy formed a partnership with investment banker Elisha Walker and Blair & Co., which owned the modest Pathé Exchange studio and held interests in the Keith-Albee-Orpheum (KAO) vaudeville theater chain, consisting of roughly 100 venues across the United States. KAO and Blair & Co. controlled Producers Distributing Corporation (PDC), previously Cecil B. DeMille’s studio and now a subsidiary of Pathé. In March, Kennedy assumed operational leadership of PDC, effectively sidelining DeMille.[2] Following a vertical integration approach developed with Sarnoff and Walker, Kennedy’s investors took control of KAO and its film production and distribution components, aiming to create a major all-sound studio utilizing RCA Photophone technology—a key goal for Sarnoff.[3]

FBO released The Perfect Crime, featuring Clive Brook and Irene Rich, which premiered on August 4, 1928, at Manhattan's Rivoli Theater.[4] Directed by Bert Glennon, it was the first feature-length "talkie" produced by a studio other than Warner Bros., employing RCA Photophone to overlay dialogue and sound effects onto footage originally shot as silent.[5] Critics responded unfavorably, noting synchronization issues and an unclear storyline.[6] FBO intended to add synchronized soundtracks to five additional silent films.[7] Up to that point, RCA had financed FBO’s sound development efforts; on August 22, Kennedy formalized a licensing deal for the use of Photophone technology.[8]

While Kennedy was in Europe on vacation, RCA advanced plans to merge Keith-Albee-Orpheum with FBO under Sarnoff’s direction.[9] Upon returning in September, Kennedy consented to divest his theater holdings as well as his stake in FBO.

On October 23, 1928, RCA announced the creation of Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO) Pictures with Sarnoff appointed chairman.[10] Kennedy earned over $4 million from selling his shares in FBO and KAO plus an additional $150,000 for brokering the transaction.[11] Joseph I. Schnitzer succeeded Kennedy as president and continued overseeing RKO Productions following the merger.[12] William LeBaron stayed on as production chief; however, RKO focused exclusively on sound films going forward, discontinuing FBO’s silent-era talent roster.[13]

During FBO’s final year of operation, its highest-grossing titles included three adaptations of Gene Stratton-Porter novels such as The Keeper of the Bees, along with foreign films like Austrian import Moon of Israel and The Great Mail Robbery.[14] The debut release from RKO was Syncopation, which premiered in March alongside two inexpensive FBO productions.[15] Films produced or distributed by FBO were released under its banner through the end of that year; the final official release was Pals of the Prairie on July 7, 1929.[16]

Cinematic legacy

The majority of FBO/Robertson-Cole's productions from the silent and early sound periods are classified as lost films, with only still photographs, promotional materials, and records remaining. While about 30% of American silent feature films have been preserved, FBO's preservation rate aligns closely, with 125 out of 449 identified titles still in existence; however, merely two of these are retained within traditional studio archives. Due to stringent budget constraints, FBO frequently destroyed prints to extract silver from the film emulsion. Entire series, including all six adaptations of Gene Stratton-Porter’s works, have vanished entirely.

Fred Thomson, one of the studio’s premier stars and a significant box office attraction, has only a small portion of his twenty FBO films surviving. For many years, Thundering Hoofs was the sole complete film available in U.S. collections; fragments of Galloping Gallagher also survive. During the transition to RKO, more than a ton of Thomson’s films were discarded. Presently, full versions of The Dangerous Coward (1924) and A Regular Scout (1926) are housed at the George Eastman House, alongside seven other titles preserved internationally. Unfortunately, Thomson’s "super westerns" produced at Paramount no longer exist.

This considerable loss underscores the difficulties faced in safeguarding early cinematic works that are essential for appreciating FBO’s historical market presence and enduring brand identity within the film industry.

Headliners and celebrity casting

Sessue Hayakawa, Robertson-Cole’s first major star, featured in twenty films between 1919 and 1922. Despite his popularity, escalating anti-Japanese sentiment prompted R-C to terminate their contract with him; Hayakawa responded by filing a lawsuit for breach of contract. Pauline Frederick, renowned for her performance in Madame X, secured a lucrative agreement with Robertson-Cole beginning in 1920, starring in over six melodramas and reportedly earning between $7,000 and $7,500 per week. Early in her career, ZaSu Pitts rose to prominence through six R-C releases, including Better Times (1919), marking her first leading role.

Following the rebranding to FBO, Evelyn Brent and Richard Talmadge emerged as the studio’s primary non-Western stars. Brent specialized in crime melodramas such as Midnight Molly (1925), whereas Talmadge—known for his work as a stunt coordinator and double for stars like Douglas Fairbanks—headlined action-packed "stunt dramas" including Stepping Lively (1924). He starred in eighteen FBO productions, many under his own company’s banner. By mid-1926, Brent transitioned to Paramount while Talmadge was recognized as FBO’s leading non-Western box office draw.

Starting in late 1924, Maurice "Lefty" Flynn led over a dozen action-comedy dramas produced by Harry Garson. Flynn expanded his repertoire from roles such as motorcycle cop to international secret agent after signing new contracts in 1925. Character actor Ralph Lewis, known for appearances in several D. W. Griffith classics, headlined at least eight FBO films between 1922 and 1928. Other notable performers included George O'Hara, Warner Baxter, Joe E. Brown, Anna Q. Nilsson, and Douglas Fairbanks Jr.. Pauline Frederick returned to star in Her Honor, the Governor (1926). After Brent’s departure, Kennedy secured Viola Dana for a six-picture contract; subsequently, former Fox star Olive Borden led three productions. Boris Karloff appeared in six FBO titles between 1925 and 1927.

Prior to Kennedy’s leadership, the studio often tackled sensational subjects: following Wallace Reid’s death due to addiction, his widow Dorothy Davenport produced Human Wreckage (1923), which addressed substance abuse issues. The studio also released magician Harry Houdini’s final feature film Haldane of the Secret Service. Davenport continued with socially conscious filmmaking through Broken Laws (1924), focusing on juvenile delinquency.

After the highly publicized divorce of star Rudolph Valentino, his former wife Natacha Rambova was cast in When Love Grows Cold (1926). Under Kennedy's direction, FBO shifted its strategy toward family-friendly content: "We must make pictures that have appeal to all." Although scandal-driven productions ceased, celebrity casting persisted with football icon Red Grange making his debut in One Minute to Play (1926). Tennis champions Suzanne Lenglen and Mary Browne were signed for an intended "Racquet Girls" series that ultimately was never produced.

Western and Cowboy Icons

FBO's brand was closely linked with Western films and its leading cowboy star, Fred Thomson, who secured the second position among male actors in the Exhibitors Herald polls of 1926 and 1927, trailing only Tom Mix. Thomson's movies, including The Two-Gun Man (1926), demonstrated that Westerns could attract viewers even in prestigious locations such as New York’s Times Square. Thomson was a significant revenue generator for FBO, with Kennedy personally earning nearly $500,000 by lending Thomson to Paramount. Nevertheless, in 1928, Kennedy exercised his authority over Fred Thomson Productions to sideline Thomson from projects; Thomson passed away in December of that year due to tetanus, with his widow suggesting that a diminished will to live contributed to his demise. Kennedy also gained financially from a $150,000 life insurance policy taken out on Thomson.

Among Western stars under long-term contracts, Tom Tyler held the next level of prominence, placing twenty-third in the 1927 exhibitors' rankings. Initially a weightlifter and minor actor, Tyler rose to cowboy stardom by 1925. His popularity was enhanced through collaborations with co-stars like Frankie Darro and actresses such as Doris Hill and Jean Arthur. By early 1928, Tyler had become FBO’s leading active actor.

Kennedy sought to elevate the studio's profile further by signing Tom Mix to a six-picture agreement in mid-1928 after Mix toured vaudeville venues supporting Kennedy’s exhibition enterprises. Mix completed five films for FBO (with two released after the merger) and achieved second place in the exhibitors' poll with 112 votes, though he remained far behind MGM’s Lon Chaney. The advent of talking pictures posed challenges for silent Western stars. Mix voiced displeasure over FBO’s limited production budgets and his weekly salary of $10,000; he later labeled Kennedy as a "tight-assed, money-crazy son-of-a-bitch."

Other notable Western figures included Harry Carey, once a leading star at Universal who made several Westerns for FBO in 1922–23; Bob Custer; Bob Steele; and young actor Buzz Barton. The studio also featured prominent canine stars: Ranger consistently headlined, ranking sixty-fifth among male performers; Beans co-starred alongside Tom Tyler and Frankie Darro; Strongheart starred in FBO’s adaptation of Jack London’s White Fang. Early in his career, Rin-Tin-Tin appeared in an FBO melodrama and received critical praise for his performance.

Distinguished Films and Filmmakers

Kennedy recognized FBO’s relatively modest position within the film industry. Among productions before his tenure, Broken Laws (1924), directed by Roy William Neill, stood out as a notable "problem" picture. The 1927 Tarzan film earned acclaim from author Edgar Rice Burroughs and was regarded as an exciting action feature offering novel thrills.

FBO also handled distribution of esteemed international films: the Austrian biblical epic Die Sklavenkönigin (The Slave Queen) from 1927, directed by Michael Kertész (later known as Michael Curtiz of Casablanca renown), and Argentina’s most successful silent film, The Charge of the Gauchos (1928), which was filmed in Hollywood. Cinematographer Nicholas Musuraca, who began his career at FBO, later became a prominent figure at RKO.

Among the directors associated with FBO were King Vidor, who cast ZaSu Pitts in Better Times, and Louis J. Gasnier, famed for The Perils of Pauline, who helmed several projects during the Robertson-Cole period. Ralph Ince, sibling of Thomas H. Ince, was the studio’s most prolific director and occasionally acted in his own productions like Chicago After Midnight (1928), which received praise from the New York Times. Additional significant directors included Henry King, Tod Browning, and William Seiter; both Seiter and Emory Johnson are recognized as underrated talents from the silent era.

Author Gene Stratton-Porter uniquely formed a production company dedicated to adapting her novels; FBO distributed six such films between 1924 and 1928, all directed by her son-in-law James Leo Meehan. These adaptations were commercially successful despite now being lost. In-house writer Frances Marion penned stories for seven Fred Thomson Westerns under a pseudonym. Editor Pandro S. Berman, whose father was an FBO shareholder, launched his career here before advancing to prominence at RKO as a producer and executive. Renowned RKO costume designer Walter Plunkett also began his professional journey at FBO.

Short films and animation

The initial short film series featuring George O'Hara and Alberta Vaughn, both directed by Malcolm St. Clair for FBO, achieved notable success. This led the studio, toward the end of 1924, to develop the twelve-episode spoof series The Go-Getters, which performed well enough to justify a sequel titled The Pacemakers in 1925. Vaughn also starred in the comedic series The Adventures of Mazie (1925–26) and the baseball-themed serial Fighting Hearts (1926).

In May 1928, after acquiring control of the Keith-Albee-Orpheum theater circuit, Joseph Kennedy revealed plans for an expanded lineup that included higher-budget productions alongside a "Mammoth Program of Short Features." Independent producer Larry Darmour contributed four series, notably including the second set of twelve Mickey McGuire episodes starring a young Mickey Rooney. Additionally, Amedee Van Beuren provided Walter Futter’s Curiosities, a series inspired by Ripley's Believe It or Not! that highlighted unusual and fascinating oddities.

Between 1924 and 1927, Joe Rock annually supplied FBO with two-reel slapstick comedies, featuring twelve shorts starring Stan Laurel before his famous pairing with Oliver Hardy. Film historian Simon Louvish regards West of Hot Dog (1924) as showcasing one of Laurel’s most inventive gags utilizing advanced film techniques. Furthermore, during 1926–27, FBO released over a dozen shorts created by comedian and animator Charles Bowers, who was known for integrating live-action footage with three-dimensional model animation.

FBO also distributed prominent animated productions from John Randolph Bray’s studio, including Walter Lantz’s Dinky Doodle series (1924–26). In 1925–26, the studio released twenty-six Krazy Kat cartoons produced by William Nolan under license from Margaret Winkler and Charles Mintz. Although Winkler and Mintz later transferred the Krazy Kat series to Paramount, they collaborated with FBO on the Alice Comedies, a blend of animation and live-action; more than two dozen episodes were issued by FBO, created by animators Ub Iwerks and Walt Disney.

External links

  1. ↑ Jewell (2012), p. 12; Lasky (1989), pp. 24–25; Nasaw (2012), pp. 111–12; Beauchamp (2009), p. 141.
  2. ↑ Lasky (1989), pp. 25–26; Jewell (2012), pp. 13–15; Nasaw (2012), pp. 115–17, 119–20; Beauchamp (2009), pp. 141–52.
  3. ↑ Jewell (2012), p. 16.
  4. ↑ Crafton (1997), p. 140.
  5. ↑ Crafton (1997), pp. 140, 304; Koszarski (1990), p. 169.
  6. ↑ New York Times review, August 6, 1928.
  7. ↑ Exhibitors Herald, August 11, 1928.
  8. ↑ Beauchamp (2009), p. 203; Lasky (1989), pp. 29, 33.
  9. ↑ Nasaw (2012), pp. 129–31.
  10. ↑ Jewell (2012), p. 16.
  11. ↑ Beauchamp (2009), pp. 218–20; Jewell (2012), p.18.
  12. ↑ Beauchamp (2009), p.224; Jewell (2012), p.18.
  13. ↑ Lasky (1989), p.43.
  14. ↑ Motion Picture Almanac (1929).
  15. ↑ Jewell (1988), p.20.
  16. ↑ AFI Catalog.
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