Fort Delaware

Fort Delaware
Company type	Coastal defense fortification
Industry	Military defense, Prison
Founded	1819
Founder	Joseph Gilbert Totten (chief engineer)
Headquarters	Pea Patch Island, United States
Products	Coastal defense, military detention
Owner	Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DNREC)

Adapted from the English Wikipedia article Fort Delaware, available under CC BY-SA 4.0Updated 7 August 20253 sources

Fort Delaware served as a former coastal defense installation, engineered by chief engineer Joseph Gilbert Totten on Pea Patch Island located in the Delaware River. Throughout the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Union repurposed Fort Delaware as a detention center for Confederate military captives, political detainees, civilians, federal prisoners, and privateer officers.

In the 1890s, a concrete battery equipped with three 12-inch guns, later designated Battery Torbert and designed by Maj. Charles W. Raymond, was installed within the fort. By the turn of the century, Fort Delaware formed part of the original triad of forts comprising the Coast Defenses of the Delaware, operating in coordination with Fort Mott in Pennsville, New Jersey, and Fort DuPont in Delaware City, Delaware. Presently, both the fort and Pea Patch Island are overseen by the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DNREC) and function as an interactive history museum within Fort Delaware State Park.

Background

In 1794, French military engineer Pierre Charles L’Enfant identified an island named "Pip Ash," now referred to as Pea Patch Island, as a critical position for protecting American trade routes. At that time, the island was mostly undeveloped except for its use by Dr. Henry Gale of New Jersey as a private hunting reserve. When the U.S. Army offered $30,000 to acquire it, Gale declined the sale. Subsequently, the military turned to Delaware, which asserted jurisdiction over the Delaware River and its islands within a twelve-mile radius around New Castle. In 1813, Delaware transferred ownership of the island to the federal government, which then took possession from Gale. In 1820, Attorney General William Wirt affirmed Delaware’s legitimate title to the island, invalidating New Jersey’s deed granted to Gale.

War of 1812

During the War of 1812, Capt. Samuel Babcock led initiatives to strengthen Pea Patch Island’s defenses through constructing seawalls and dykes. Nevertheless, no major fortifications were completed before the conflict ended. Early plans included building a Martello tower, and some accounts mention an earthwork fort erected during this period that was dismantled in 1821; additionally, a wooden fort reportedly stood from 1814 until 1824.

Star fort

Construction began on a star fort at Pea Patch Island prior to December 8, 1817, with Chief Engineer Joseph Gardner Swift reporting progress on this fortification in the Delaware River.

Replacement for Fort Mifflin

The assault on Fort Mifflin during the Revolutionary War revealed the necessity for a stronger fortification further downstream to delay enemy advances and protect vital port cities such as Chester, Marcus Hook, Wilmington, and New Castle. On February 7, 1821, the Board of Engineers highlighted that forts positioned on Pea Patch Island and along the Delaware shore would secure navigation below Philadelphia by compelling adversaries to land at more distant points downstream—providing crucial time for reinforcements to arrive. These installations would also protect the prospective Chesapeake & Delaware Canal. However, construction of the fort on the Delaware shore did not commence until the Civil War era.

Construction challenges

Conceived by military engineer Joseph G. Totten and overseen by Captain Samuel Babcock, the five-pointed star-shaped fort marked a design evolution bridging the second and third U.S. coastal defense systems. Construction commenced circa 1819 but encountered considerable setbacks due to uneven ground settlement, incorrect pile positioning, and swampy terrain. A portion consisting of 43,000 bricks had to be removed and reconstructed after cracks appeared. In 1822, Totten and General Simon Bernard examined the defective construction and reproached Babcock for making unauthorized modifications to the plans. Although Babcock was subjected to a court-martial in late 1824, he was ultimately cleared of neglect charges, with his defense led by George Read Jr. from New Castle, Delaware.

Leadership and troops

The earliest recorded commander of Fort Delaware was Major Alexander C.W. Fanning, who held command prior to 1825. The garrison comprised members of the 2nd U.S. Artillery. By approximately 1829, Major Benjamin Kendrick Pierce, sibling of President Franklin Pierce, took command, with Companies A and B of the 4th U.S. Artillery stationed at the fort.

Fire incident of 1831

In February 1831, Lieutenant Stephen Tuttle evaluated the fort’s foundation problems. On February 8, a blaze originating in Tuttle’s quarters devastated much of the structure. Major Pierce received authorization to move his units to the federal arsenal in New Castle until Fort Delaware could be reoccupied. The following year, Captain Richard Delafield sought $10,000 funding to demolish what remained of the damaged fortifications. By 1833, the star fort was dismantled to make way for new construction; debris from the demolition was utilized to bolster the island’s seawall, with some sandstone fragments still visible today.

Polygonal Fort

Captain Delafield planned a more extensive polygonal masonry fortification intended as a significant military architectural feature on Pea Patch Island. Excavation started in 1836 with foundational work on the northern side. However, in 1838 James Humphrey asserted legal ownership over the island, sparking a protracted decade-long dispute that stalled building efforts. After contradictory judicial decisions, President James K. Polk appointed John Sergeant as an arbitrator in 1847. Sergeant’s January 1848 ruling confirmed Delaware’s ownership and validated the U.S. claim. Following this decision, no additional construction took place on Delafield’s polygonal design.

Pentagonal fort

The existing Fort Delaware was constructed chiefly between 1848 and 1860 as part of the third system of American coastal defenses. Although most major construction finished before the onset of the American Civil War, final completion was not declared until 1868, as finishing details such as counterscarp walls and slate paving were still being installed. The design was crafted by U.S. Army chief engineer Joseph G. Totten and managed by Major John Sanders, with significant contributions from engineers including Captain George B. McClellan, Major John Newton, Lieutenant William Price Craighill, Lieutenant Montgomery C. Meigs, and civilian engineer Edwin Muhlenbrach.

The fort’s irregular pentagonal layout incorporated five bastions ("tower bastions") alongside four seacoast fronts featuring three artillery tiers—two casemated levels plus one barbette level—providing broad cannon coverage, particularly on the east-facing sides overlooking deeper channels. It housed up to 169 guns: 123 heavy artillery pieces on seacoast fronts, 15 mounted in bastions, 11 positioned atop the gorge wall roof, plus 20 short-range flank howitzers defending curtain walls. The rear "gorge wall" contained two tiers fitted with 68 musket loopholes and included a sally port as its only entrance. Surrounding moats featured tide gates for water level regulation.

Foundation

Because the island's soil consisted of compressible mud reaching depths of approximately forty feet, a deep foundation was necessary. Starting in 1849, Major Sanders' crew utilized steam-powered pile drivers to insert lengthy piles—resembling modern telephone poles—into the ground to provide structural support. By 1850, a total of 4,911 piles had been driven, including 1,095 that were repurposed from the earlier Delafield fort. To guarantee stability after previous foundation issues, engineers performed load tests on 5,754 piles; roughly 1,700 required additional splicing and deeper placement. The pile driving phase was completed in 1851, allowing for the installation of a wooden grillage foundation layer.

Stonework

The fort’s primary construction materials include gneiss, granite, brick, and cement. At first, gneiss quarried near Port Deposit, Maryland was employed for the scarp wall. However, by 1852, Major Sanders observed that the gneiss’s hardness hindered masons and delayed progress. Consequently, granite from John Leiper's quarry in Delaware County, Pennsylvania was used for steps and other structural components. Stone sourced from Vinalhaven, Maine provided material for stairway platforms. A severe storm in 1854 caused damage to the island’s dike and seawall, redirecting efforts toward repairs and slowing down the stonework.

Brickwork

More than two million bricks were acquired from Wilmington, Delaware, and Philadelphia to build the interior of the scarp wall. These bricks were utilized in constructing underground cisterns, casemates, powder magazines, barracks, officers’ quarters, bread ovens, and the fort’s breast-high wall. Masonry arches and vaults were designed to evenly distribute weight and improve structural integrity. Additionally, poured concrete layers above the vaults added further strength.

Major Sanders dies

Major Sanders passed away on July 29, 1858; Lieutenant William Craighill served as interim supervisor until Major John Newton took over as supervising engineer. In 1859, Newton reported that the fort would be ready to receive armaments and a garrison by 1860. By 1861, Captain Augustus A. Gibson commanded a small contingent of 20 regular soldiers as construction slowed during the Civil War. Attention shifted toward installing artillery: twenty columbiad guns arrived in 1861 with an additional seventeen delivered in 1862. By 1866, approximately 156 guns had been mounted throughout the fort’s casemates and ramparts.

Civil War

Throughout the Civil War, Fort Delaware was repurposed from a defensive structure into a prisoner-of-war facility holding captured Confederates, convicted federal soldiers, political detainees, and privateers. Early prisoners were confined within sealed casemates, vacant powder magazines, and small rooms inside the sally port, where Confederate names remain etched into the brickwork. The Philadelphia Inquirer described the island as hosting an average population of "southern tourists" invited by President Lincoln. The first Confederate general imprisoned there was Brigadier General Johnston Pettigrew, with about a dozen generals detained throughout the conflict.

Barracks & hospital

During 1862 and 1863, construction efforts produced a "barracks for enlisted prisoners of war," commonly called the "bull pen," which housed most Confederates captured at Gettysburg. An L-shaped barracks for Union guards was erected alongside a 600-bed hospital designed by Philadelphia architect John McArthur Jr. These wooden barracks accommodated close to ten thousand prisoners with bunks arranged in three-tiered rows. Officers were quartered separately within the fort itself.

Mortality rate

The initial Confederate casualty at Fort Delaware was Captain L. P. Halloway of the 27th Virginia Infantry, who died in April 1862 and was honored with a full Masonic funeral conducted by the fort’s commanding officer. By August 1863, the island held more than 11,000 prisoners, and by the conclusion of the war, nearly 33,000 had been confined there. Around 2,500 inmates perished, representing an approximate mortality rate of 7.6%, with half of these deaths occurring during a smallpox outbreak in 1863. The primary causes of death included pneumonia (243 cases), diarrhea (315), smallpox (272), typhoid or malaria (215), scurvy (70), pneumonia again listed (61), and erysipelas (47). Additionally, five individuals drowned and seven died due to gunshot injuries. The conflict also resulted in the deaths of 109 Union soldiers and roughly 40 civilians residing on the island.

Numerous Confederate prisoners and Union guards who died are interred at Finn's Point National Cemetery located in Pennsville, New Jersey.

Prisoner rations and living conditions (outside the fort)

By 1863, enlisted men and junior officers—mainly lieutenants and captains—were quartered in wooden barracks situated on the northwest part of the island, enclosed by a tall fence topped with a guard catwalk. In 1864, as a response to reports concerning Northern soldiers’ conditions in Southern prison camps, the War Department reduced rations. Prisoners were provided two modest meals daily but could supplement their diet by purchasing additional food from the sutler or by fishing in nearby waterways and the Delaware River. Documentation indicates that Fort Delaware inmates received more "care packages" than any other prisoner-of-war camp.

Private Henry Berkeley described their meals as consisting of "three hardtack, a small piece of meat (about three bites), and a pint tin cup of bean soup," noting that only two light meals were served each day.

Captain Robert E. Park from the 12th Alabama Infantry depicted the mess hall as a long, dimly lit room where food was placed on a pine table twice daily. Breakfast typically included stale bread and weak coffee, while dinner consisted of bread accompanied by salt pork or beef; occasionally boiled fresh beef and bean soup were served, although the beef was often tough.

Captain William H. Burgwyn of the 35th North Carolina Infantry observed that large trenches filled daily with bay water were used for washing purposes, whereas drinking water was drawn from Brandywine Creek, located approximately ten miles away.

Prisoner rations and living conditions (inside the fort)

Senior Confederate officers and certain political detainees were accommodated within former laundress quarters and open-bay barracks inside Fort Delaware. These prisoners frequently enjoyed paroles allowing movement around the island, access to enhanced food supplies, and more liberties compared to the general prison population.

Colonel William W. Ward recounted in 1864 that "through the kindness of General Albin Francisco Schoepf (the fort's commandant), Colonels Morgan, Tucker, Coleman, and I were paroled to the Island." Officers such as General M. Jeff Thompson and General Robert B. Vance formed a mess group that lived comfortably by employing local services for cooking and laundry.

Reverend Isaac W. K. Handy, detained as a political prisoner in the laundress quarters, described an ample provision of hams, turkeys, chickens, cheese, canned fruits, among other items; he noted that government rations mainly consisted of bread issued every other day.

Lieutenant Francis W. Dawson recalled being assigned to a spacious barrack room housing seventy to eighty officers; he described it as dry, warm, well-lit, and equipped with washing facilities—a stark contrast to the cold and damp conditions found in outdoor barracks.

By late 1862, those confined inside the fort received three meals daily rather than two. Dawson detailed a light fare consisting of poor-quality coffee and bread for breakfast and supper, with a small serving of beef accompanied by thin soup for dinner. Prisoners often augmented their meals by purchasing items from the Sutler’s store.

The "Immortal 600"

On August 20, 1864, six hundred officers from the Confederate States Army embarked on the Crescent ship heading toward Morris Island, South Carolina. This contingent, later referred to as the "Immortal Six Hundred", was deliberately placed under enemy fire as a reprisal for Union officers who had been subjected to Confederate bombardment in Charleston.^[1]

Private Alexander J. Hamilton of the Pittsburgh Heavy Artillery detailed the arrangements and boarding process aboard the Crescent alongside comrades from multiple units.^[2]

Reverend Isaac Handy provided an account of their exit through the sally-port into the "bull-pen," highlighting the poignant goodbyes as the prisoners were escorted away under guard.^[3]

Garrison units

Beginning in 1861, Fort Delaware was manned by various volunteer forces, including the 114th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment (Collis' Zouaves d' Afrique), 19th New York Volunteers, Mlotkowski's Independent Battery A, Young's Independent Battery G (Pittsburgh Heavy Artillery), as well as the 5th, 6th, and 9th Delaware Infantry regiments. Additional units included the 5th and 11th Maryland Infantry, 6th Massachusetts Militia, along with the 157th, 201st, and 215th Pennsylvania Infantry regiments, plus the 157th and 196th Ohio Infantry and Zouaves from the 165th New York Infantry. The fort also functioned as a center for organizing and mustering Delaware troops. On July 27, 1863, Ahl's Independent Battery of Heavy Artillery was established there, largely composed of Confederate prisoners who had sworn allegiance. Artillery detachments staffed guard positions both inside the fort and on the island itself, while infantry units were responsible for securing posts along the seawall. By August 1864, roughly eighty-five guard stations required a staffing level of about two hundred fifty-five men per shift.

1870s and 1880s

Following the Civil War, Fort Delaware was overseen by a modest detachment from the 4th U.S. Artillery. During the early 1870s, efforts were made to modernize its five bastions to accommodate fifteen-inch Rodman guns. A ten-gun battery constructed in the Civil War era near where Fort DuPont would later be situated was expanded into a twenty-gun battery during this timeframe; however, it never became fully equipped.

In October of 1878, a severe hurricane inflicted significant damage on structures located outside the fort’s walls; most buildings on the southern portion of the island were destroyed. The Trinity Chapel—originally built in 1863 by Confederate prisoners—suffered partial damage and was subsequently used for hay storage before being demolished sometime after 1901.

On August 3, 1885, a tornado struck the island with great force, demolishing the post-war hospital and damaging other installations. Ordnance Sergeant James Maxwell described this event as a violent whirlwind that uprooted trees and scattered hospital debris across both the island and surrounding river.

Spanish–American War

In 1892, a semi-subterranean mine control casemate was constructed at the northern tip of the island to manage water-tight mines deployed in the Delaware River as a defensive measure against potential enemy incursions. This facility operated in conjunction with a torpedo storage shed and a narrow-gauge railway. A comparable casemate at Fort DuPont oversaw another minefield in the area. Notably, an earlier plan to build a mine casemate at Fort Delaware dating back to the 1870s never received funding.

Upgrades during the Endicott Era

In the closing years of the 19th century, Fort Delaware underwent significant enhancements as part of the Endicott program, which originated from the 1885 Board of Fortifications led by Secretary of War William C. Endicott. This initiative phased out old-style masonry forts in favor of widely spaced concrete batteries, cleverly concealed by natural landforms. Fort Delaware’s defenses were reinforced by the addition of Fort DuPont and Fort Mott, collectively forming the Coast Defenses of the Delaware.

By 1896, approximately half of the fort’s barracks and officers’ quarters were dismantled to make way for a reinforced concrete battery foundation designed to hold three guns. Construction recommenced in August 1897 under the supervision of Lt. Col. Charles W. Raymond and Lt. Spencer Cosby. Battery Torbert, finished by 1900, consisted of three levels of reinforced concrete and was equipped with three 12-inch breech-loading rifled guns mounted on disappearing carriages, capable of firing up to roughly 10 miles. This battery is notable as one of only two such three-story Endicott batteries in the United States, the other being Battery Potter at Fort Hancock.

On either side of Battery Torbert stood two smaller rapid-fire installations—Battery Allen and Battery Alburtis—each armed with a pair of 3-inch M1898 guns on retractable mounts. These were completed by 1901 to defend close-range sectors and secure the minefield. Additional rapid-fire protection came from Battery Dodd and Battery Hentig situated outside the fort’s perimeter. Battery Dodd, outfitted with two British 4.7-inch guns, was rushed into construction following the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898 but was not finished until after hostilities ended in 1899, reflecting concerns about potential naval bombardments. Battery Hentig, featuring two 3-inch M1903 guns, became operational in 1901.

The batteries honored fallen military figures: Battery Allen commemorated Robert Allen, Jr., Battery Alburtis remembered William Alburtis, Battery Dodd was named for Captain Albert Dodd, and Battery Hentig honored Edmund C. Hentig.

Garrison Assignments

During the Spanish–American War, artillerymen from the 4th U.S. Artillery alongside volunteers from Company I of the 14th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment manned Fort Delaware. Their presence is still marked by inscriptions etched into the fort’s brick walls, preserving a record of their deployment during the summer months of 1898.

World War I

Following a period under caretaker status, Fort Delaware was briefly reactivated during World War I. The primary defensive position was established at Fort DuPont, with Fort Delaware and Fort Mott operating as subordinate posts. In March 1919, personnel began decommissioning activities at Fort Delaware, removing all armaments except for the three 12-inch guns housed in Battery Torbert. Pvt. James C. Davis recounted orders instructing soldiers to bury equipment on-site rather than disposing of it in surrounding waters or removing it from the island. Three artillery pieces were interred; only a single 15-inch Rodman gun was later excavated but ultimately scrapped during World War II. The British-origin 4.7-inch guns from Battery Dodd were shipped to San Francisco for use on Army troop transports but returned in 1919 before being dismantled and preserved as memorials. By 1920, the 3-inch weapons from Batteries Alburtis and Allen were scrapped as part of a wider retirement of M1898 artillery pieces. With Fort Saulsbury nearing completion—armed with long-range 12-inch guns—Fort Delaware and its neighboring installations transitioned to secondary defensive roles. The evolution of the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware reflected broader changes in coastal defense doctrine as artillery ranges extended further offshore.

World War II

In 1940, the fort’s trio of 12-inch artillery pieces was dismantled; two of these were reassigned to Battery Reed, part of the Harbor Defenses at Fort Amezquita in Puerto Rico. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, personnel from Battery C of the 261st Coast Artillery Battalion, Delaware Army National Guard, operated the rapid-fire guns at Battery Hentig positioned outside the fort. These weapons were removed in 1942 and redeployed to Fort Miles located in Lewes, Delaware, which resulted in Fort Delaware being left without armaments. The strategic importance of Fort Miles diminished the defensive role previously held by Fort Saulsbury. Prior to its designation as surplus property after the war, much of Fort Delaware’s electrical infrastructure was salvaged and transferred to Fort Miles.

The fort today

The state of Delaware took ownership of the fort in 1947 when the federal government declared it surplus. Presently, Fort Delaware State Park encompasses the entirety of Pea Patch Island, including the historic fortification itself. Access to the island is available seasonally via the Forts Ferry Crossing passenger ferry service operating between Delaware City and Fort Mott as of 2018. Upon arrival on Pea Patch Island, visitors board a jitney shuttle to reach the fort. Interpretive programs and tours emphasize historical elements such as the daily demonstration firing of the 8 inch Columbiad cannon located on the northwest bastion. Park personnel and volunteers provide educational insights into the Civil War-era functions and duties of those stationed at the fort.

Concerns over beach erosion threatening Pea Patch Island were addressed starting in 1999. The United States Army Corps of Engineers completed construction of a 3,500-foot seawall during the winter months of 2005-2006. This structure protects both the historic site and an important migratory bird rookery—the largest found north of Florida.

Popular events

Since 2009, Fort Delaware has been home to summer games hosted by the Diamond State Base Ball Club, a vintage base ball team that also competes at nearby Fort DuPont. This non-profit amateur group promotes physical activity, educates audiences about baseball and local heritage, and fosters community spirit.

Television & pop culture

An episode titled "War Crimes: The Death Camps" from A&E Network’s Civil War Journal was filmed at Fort Delaware and aired on October 9, 1994.

The fort was investigated twice by the Sci-Fi Channel series Ghost Hunters, including a live Halloween broadcast in 2008.

Its spin-off show Ghost Hunters Academy featured an episode filmed at the site that aired on June 23, 2010.

Additionally, the British paranormal series Most Haunted conducted an investigation at Fort Delaware during its eleventh season.

References

Portions adapted from a Senate website produced by the US Government

Bibliography

Laura M. Lee and Brendan Mackie, Images of America: Fort Delaware, Arcadia Publishers: 2010.
Burbey, Louis H. Our Worthy Commander: The Life and Times of Benjamin K. Pierce, in Whose Honor Fort Pierce Was Named. Indian River Community College Press, 1976.
Burgwyn, William H.S. A Captain's War: The Letters and Diaries of William H. S. Burgwyn, 1861-1865. White Mane Publishing Company, Inc., 1994.
Duke, Basil W. The Civil War Reminiscences of General Basil W. Duke, C.S.A. Doubleday Press, 1976.
Basil W. Duke, former prisoner, Morgan's Cavalry, Neale Publishing Company, 1906.
Fletcher, William J., 6th Massachusetts Infantry, A Soldier for One-Hundred Days, 1955.
Harold Bell Hancock, Delaware During the Civil War: A Political History, Delaware Historical Society, 1961.
Bruce Mowday and Dale Fetzer, Unlikely Allies: Fort Delaware's Prison Community in the Civil War Stackpole Books, 2000.
Nugent, Washington G. My Darling Wife: The Letters of Washington George Nugent, Surgeon, Army of the Potomac. Maria Randall Allen, ed. Ye Olde Book Bindery, 1994.
W. Emerson Wilson, ed., A Fort Delaware Journal: The Diary of a Yankee Private, A.J. Hamilton, 1862–65, Fort Delaware Society, 1981.

External links

↑ Pinkowski, Edward., 1974., pp. 62-63.
↑ Wilson, Emerson E., 1981., pp. 58-59.
↑ Handy, Isaac W.K., 1873., pp. 514-515.

[1] Pinkowski, Edward., 1974., pp. 62-63.

[2] Wilson, Emerson E., 1981., pp. 58-59.

[3] Handy, Isaac W.K., 1873., pp. 514-515.

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