George W. Bush

George W. Bush
Born	George Walker Bush (1946-07-06) July 6, 1946 New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.
Occupation(s)	Businessman, politician
Years active	1978–present
Known for	43rd President of the United States, 46th Governor of Texas

George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American businessman and political figure who held the office of the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 until 2009. Affiliated with the Republican Party and a member of the prominent Bush family, he is the eldest son of the 41st president, George H. W. Bush, and served as the 46th governor of Texas from 1995 through 2000.

In his early adulthood, Bush piloted military aircraft as part of the Texas Air National Guard. After obtaining an MBA from Harvard Business School in 1975, he entered the oil sector and became a co-owner of the Major League Baseball franchise Texas Rangers. His election as Texas governor in 1994 led to initiatives such as tort reform, enhanced education funding, elevated academic standards, criminal justice reform, and advancing Texas as a national leader in wind energy production. In the closely contested 2000 presidential race, Bush narrowly triumphed over Democratic incumbent vice president Al Gore following a Supreme Court decision that halted Florida’s vote recount, thereby determining the Electoral College outcome.

During his initial term, Bush implemented significant tax reductions and enacted the No Child Left Behind Act, promoted socially conservative policies including the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and faith-based programs, and launched the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief in 2003. The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 profoundly influenced his administration’s agenda, resulting in the war on terror, establishment of the Department of Homeland Security, and military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq—the latter justified by controversial allegations regarding weapons of mass destruction and terrorist affiliations. Additionally, he signed into law the Medicare Modernization Act, which created Medicare Part D. Bush secured re-election in 2004 by defeating Democrat John Kerry.

In his second term, Bush pursued multiple free trade agreements, appointed Justices John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the Supreme Court, and attempted but did not succeed in overhauling Social Security and immigration policies. His administration faced scrutiny over its handling of Hurricane Katrina and detainee mistreatment at Abu Ghraib prison. The Democratic Party regained control of Congress in 2006 amid ongoing military conflicts; in response, Bush authorized a troop surge in Iraq in 2007. The emergence of the Great Recession led to economic interventions such as the Troubled Asset Relief Program.

After completing his presidency, Bush returned to Texas maintaining a relatively low public profile. His approval ratings experienced significant fluctuations—from historic highs following 9/11 to some of the lowest during the financial crisis. Although he left office with low popularity, subsequent public perception has improved. Historians typically rank him in the lower half among U.S. presidents.

Early life and career

George Walker Bush was born on July 6, 1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital located in New Haven, Connecticut. He was the firstborn child of George Herbert Walker Bush and Barbara Pierce. Raised primarily in Midland and Houston, Texas, he has four siblings: Jeb, Neil, Marvin, and Dorothy. His paternal grandfather, Prescott Bush, served as a U.S. senator representing Connecticut. His father held office as vice president under Ronald Reagan from 1981 to 1989 before becoming the nation’s 41st president from 1989 to 1993. Bush's heritage includes English and German ancestry among other lineages.

Education

Bush's early education took place in Midland's public schools until he relocated to Houston following seventh grade. Subsequently, he attended The Kinkaid School, a Texas-based college preparatory institution, for two years. Later, he enrolled at Phillips Academy in Massachusetts, where he participated in baseball and held the position of head cheerleader during his senior year. Between 1964 and 1968, he pursued a history degree at Yale University, earning a Bachelor of Arts upon graduation. While at Yale, Bush was involved as a cheerleader, led the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity as president, was inducted into the Skull and Bones society, and played rugby. He characterized his academic performance as average.

In 1973, Bush commenced studies at Harvard Business School, obtaining his M.B.A. in 1975. He stands out as the sole U.S. president to have earned this particular graduate degree.

Family and personal life

In 1967, Bush became engaged to Cathryn Lee Wolfman; however, their engagement concluded on friendly terms. A decade later, in 1977, mutual acquaintances introduced him to Laura Welch, who worked as a teacher and librarian. Following a brief three-month courtship, they wed on November 5 of that year and made their home in Midland, Texas. Bush transitioned from his family's affiliation with the Episcopal Church to join his wife's United Methodist Church. On November 25, 1981, Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twins: Barbara and Jenna. Bush attributes a pivotal moment in strengthening his Christian faith to an encouragement from Billy Graham, which motivated him to engage in daily Bible reading and cultivate a personal connection with God.

Alcohol abuse

Prior to marriage, Bush encountered difficulties with alcohol misuse. On September 4, 1976, near his family's summer residence in Kennebunkport, Maine, he was arrested for driving under the influence (DUI), resulting in a $150 fine and a temporary suspension of his Maine driver's license. He credits Laura Bush with bringing stability to his life and inspiring his decision to cease drinking by 1986. During his tenure as Texas governor, he acknowledged Laura's influence in tempering his "rough edges" and highlighted that his faith played an essential role in overcoming alcohol dependency: "I believe that God helped open my eyes, which were closing because of booze."

Hobbies

An enthusiastic reader, Bush has shown a preference for biographies and historical works. Throughout his presidency, he maintained a daily habit of reading the Bible but later described himself as "not a literalist" regarding its interpretation. Journalist Walt Harrington observed that during Bush's years as an oilman in Texas, literary works by John Fowles, F. Scott Fitzgerald, James Joyce, and Gore Vidal were frequently found in his household. Beyond reading, Bush enjoys cigar smoking and playing golf. Additionally, he is an accomplished painter known for projects such as Out of Many, One, comprising 43 portraits of immigrants, and Portraits of Courage: A Commander in Chief's Tribute to America's Warrior.

Military career

Bush enlisted in the United States Air Force in May 1968 and received his commission within the Texas Air National Guard. After completing two years of active-duty training, he was stationed in Houston, piloting Convair F-102 aircraft with the 147th Reconnaissance Wing at Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base. Some critics—including former Democratic National Committee Chairman Terry McAuliffe—alleged preferential treatment linked to his father's political standing, pointing to his pilot selection despite low aptitude test scores and inconsistent attendance. In June 2005, the United States Department of Defense made all records relating to Bush's service with the Texas Air National Guard publicly available.

During late 1972 and early 1973, after relocating to Montgomery, Alabama to assist Republican Winton M. Blount's U.S. Senate campaign, Bush drilled with the 187th Fighter Wing of the Alabama Air National Guard. That same year, he faced suspension from flying duties due to missing a required physical examination. He received an honorable discharge from the Air Force Reserve on November 21, 1974.

Bush remains the most recent U.S. president with military service experience.

Business career

In 1977, Bush established Arbusto Energy, a modest oil exploration enterprise that commenced operations the following year. The company was eventually renamed Bush Exploration. By 1984, it merged with Spectrum 7, with Bush assuming the role of chairman. Facing a downturn in oil prices, Spectrum 7 subsequently merged into Harken Energy Corporation, where Bush joined the board of directors. Although accusations of insider trading emerged, a Securities and Exchange Commission inquiry ultimately cleared him of any wrongdoing.

In April 1989, Bush led a consortium of investors to purchase a controlling stake in Major League Baseball’s Texas Rangers for $89 million, personally contributing $500,000. Serving as managing general partner for five years, he actively managed team operations and frequently attended games. His 1998 divestment of Rangers shares generated over $15 million from an initial investment of $800,000.

Prior to launching his gubernatorial campaign in the early 1990s, Bush briefly contemplated running for Commissioner of Baseball, reflecting his sustained interest in the sports sector.

Early political involvement

In 1978, Bush sought election to the U.S. House of Representatives representing Texas's 19th congressional district, a seat held by Democrat George H. Mahon since 1935. He was defeated by Kent Hance, garnering 46.8% of the vote compared to Hance’s 53.2%.

The Bush family relocated to Washington, D.C., in 1988 to support his father’s presidential campaign. George W. Bush contributed as a campaign advisor and media coordinator, assisting with national outreach efforts. In December 1991, he was appointed one of seven advisors overseeing his father’s 1992 re-election campaign. The previous month, he was assigned to deliver the message requesting White House chief of staff John H. Sununu’s resignation.

Texas governorship (1995–2000)

Bush announced his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election concurrently with his brother Jeb’s run for governor in Florida. His platform highlighted welfare reform, tort reform, crime reduction, and enhancements in education. Prominent advisors included Karen Hughes, Joe Allbaugh, and Karl Rove.

After securing the Republican nomination, Bush faced incumbent Democratic governor Ann Richards. He pledged to approve legislation allowing Texans to carry concealed firearms—a bill Richards had vetoed—which he enacted upon taking office. The campaign involved contentious strategies, including rumors about Richards’ personal life tied to Karl Rove, though Rove denied any involvement. Bush won the election with 53.5% of the vote.

Capitalizing on a budget surplus, Bush introduced Texas’s largest tax reduction totaling $2 billion. He increased funding for educational programs addressing substance abuse and domestic violence prevention and lowered the age at which juveniles could be tried as adults to 14. During his tenure, Bush authorized 152 executions—the highest number for any modern U.S. governor—drawing criticism regarding clemency decisions. Environmental performance under his administration ranked poorly; however, he advocated for higher teacher salaries and improved standardized test results.

In 1999, Bush enacted legislation requiring electric providers to procure a designated percentage of renewable energy (RPS), establishing Texas as the nation’s leading wind power producer.

In the 1998 election, Bush won re-election with a record-setting 68% of the vote, becoming the first Texas governor elected to two consecutive four-year terms. Throughout his second term, he promoted faith-based initiatives and consistently maintained approval ratings ranging from 62% to 81%. He declared June 10, 2000, as Jesus Day in Texas to encourage community service and aid for those in need.

Bush’s governorship drew national attention as he emerged as a prominent presidential contender. Within a year after his re-election, he announced his campaign for the 2000 Republican presidential nomination.

Primary

Bush branded himself as a compassionate conservative, advocating a platform aimed at reinstating integrity in the White House, strengthening the military, reducing taxes, enhancing education, and supporting minority communities. By early 2000, the primary competition had largely narrowed to Bush and Senator John McCain.

While Bush captured victory in the Iowa caucuses, he was defeated by McCain in the New Hampshire primary by a 19-point margin. He regained traction with a win in the South Carolina primary, which became notorious for its aggressive negative tactics and was described by some observers as a smear campaign.

General election

On July 25, 2000, Bush chose Dick Cheney—who had served as White House chief of staff, U.S. representative, and secretary of defense—as his vice presidential candidate. Cheney had previously chaired Bush’s vice presidential selection committee. At the 2000 Republican National Convention, both Bush and Cheney received their official nominations.

Bush conducted a nationwide campaign that highlighted his tenure as governor of Texas and criticized Democratic rival Vice President Al Gore on issues such as gun control and taxation.

On November 7, Bush carried 29 states, including Florida, where his slim lead prompted a recount. The ensuing legal disputes culminated in the Supreme Court’s contentious decision in Bush v. Gore on December 9. The Court halted a statewide manual recount due to concerns over unequal standards across counties under the Equal Protection Clause. The final machine recount confirmed Bush’s victory in Florida by 537 votes out of six million cast.

Although Bush trailed Gore by nearly 544,000 popular votes nationwide, he won the presidency by securing 271 electoral votes compared to Gore’s 266 (Gore had initially been pledged 267 plus D.C., but one elector abstained). This election was the first since 1888 where a candidate won the presidency despite losing the popular vote.

2004 presidential bid

During his 2004 campaign for re-election, Bush enjoyed widespread support within the Republican Party and faced no primary opposition. He appointed Ken Mehlman as campaign manager while Karl Rove developed the overall political strategy. The campaign emphasized dedication to ongoing military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, backing the USA PATRIOT Act, pursuing constitutional amendments to prohibit abortion and same-sex marriage, reforming Social Security through private accounts, promoting an ownership society, and opposing mandatory limits on carbon emissions. Additionally, Bush proposed a guest worker program for immigrants that attracted criticism from conservative factions.

The campaign aggressively targeted Democratic contenders across the country with particular focus on Massachusetts senator John Kerry. Democrats challenged Bush on his handling of the Iraq War and economic issues, whereas Bush’s team depicted Kerry as a liberal who would increase taxes and expand government programs. They spotlighted Kerry’s shifting positions on Iraq and questioned his firmness in combating terrorism.

Following CIA director George Tenet’s resignation in 2004, Bush nominated Porter Goss, who was directed to remove agency personnel considered disloyal to the administration. This resulted in numerous senior CIA officials being dismissed or resigning amid allegations that the agency leaked classified information to influence the election outcome.

In the general election, Bush prevailed in 31 states with 286 electoral votes and secured an outright majority of the popular vote at 50.7%, compared to Kerry’s 48.3%.

Presidency (2001–2009)

At the start of his tenure, Bush pursued a comprehensive domestic agenda; however, his focus shifted considerably following the September 11 attacks. His administration initiated military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq and became deeply involved in significant domestic discussions concerning immigration reform, healthcare, Social Security, economic strategies, and counterterrorism policies. Throughout his two terms, Bush experienced a steady decline in approval ratings from previously high levels, accompanied by a notable increase in public disapproval. In 2007, the United States entered its lengthiest recession since World War II.

Economic policy

Bush assumed office during an economic downturn triggered by the collapse of the dot-com bubble and the aftermath of the September 11 events.

During his administration, federal government spending rose from $1.789 trillion to $2.983 trillion—a 66% increase—while government revenues increased from $2.025 trillion to $2.524 trillion between 2000 and 2008. Individual income tax receipts grew by 14%, corporate tax revenues by 50%, and customs and duties collections by 40%. Defense discretionary spending doubled, domestic discretionary expenditures went up by 62%, Medicare costs surged by 131%, Social Security spending rose 51%, and income security outlays expanded by 130%. When adjusted for economic cycles, revenues increased by 35% whereas spending climbed by 65%, marking the largest surge in federal expenditure since the era of Lyndon B. Johnson. The workforce involved in economic regulation expanded by over 91,000 employees.

In fiscal year 2000, the government recorded a $237 billion surplus—the third consecutive year of surpluses and the largest recorded at that time. By 2001, Bush forecasted a ten-year surplus totaling $5.6 trillion. Confronted with resistance from Congress, he advocated for a tax reduction package amounting to $1.35 trillion, one of the most substantial in U.S. history, justifying it on grounds that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan cautioned about an impending recession; however, Bush maintained that tax cuts would encourage economic expansion and job creation. Treasury Secretary Paul H. O'Neill expressed reservations about certain tax cuts due to concerns over increasing deficits but later disputed suggestions that he never openly disagreed with Bush’s tax policies. By 2003, economic conditions had improved though employment gains remained sluggish; an additional tax cut was implemented that year.

From 2001 through 2008, real GDP advanced at an average annual rate of 2.125%, which was lower than previous economic cycles. The Dow Jones Industrial Average began at approximately 10,587 in 2001, reached a peak exceeding 14,000 in October 2007, but declined sharply to around 7,949 by the end of Bush’s term—ranking among the lowest levels during his presidency. Only four other presidents concluded their administrations with stock market levels below those at their inauguration.

The unemployment rate increased from 4.2% in January 2001 to a high of 6.3% in June 2003 before falling back to 4.5% by July 2007. When adjusted for inflation, median household income decreased by $1,175 between 2000 and 2007; however, some studies indicated a modest rise in median real after-tax household income during this period. The poverty rate climbed from 11.3% in 2000 to a peak of 12.7% in 2004 before declining slightly to 12.3% in 2006. By October 2008, escalating expenditures had pushed the U.S. national debt to $11.3 trillion—more than doubling since the year 2000—largely attributable to the "Bush tax cuts" and heightened national security spending. In March 2006, then-Senator Barack Obama criticized the decision to raise the debt ceiling as indicative of poor leadership. At the conclusion of Bush’s presidency, unemployment had risen again to reach 7.2%.

2008 financial crisis

In December 2007, the United States entered its most prolonged recession since World War II, triggered by a correction in the housing market, the subprime mortgage debacle, escalating oil costs, and several other contributing elements. Employment declines accelerated significantly throughout 2008, with 63,000 jobs lost in February and more than half a million in November—the largest monthly drop in over three decades. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the final four months of 2008 saw a loss of 1.9 million jobs, culminating in a total of 2.6 million job losses for the entire year.

To counteract the economic slump, President Bush authorized a $170 billion stimulus package that included tax rebates for individuals and relief measures for businesses facing financial difficulties. Since 2003, his administration had advocated for tighter oversight of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac; nonetheless, although reform legislation passed in the House of Representatives, it failed to advance in the Senate due to apprehensions that new regulatory bodies might replicate the risky behaviors found in the private sector.

The crisis escalated sharply in September 2008, marked by the federal government assuming control over Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, the bankruptcy filing of Lehman Brothers, and an $85 billion rescue package for American International Group. This sequence of events was widely regarded by economists and policymakers as the most severe financial meltdown since the Great Depression. Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan later conceded that enhanced regulation of the housing market could have mitigated some of the damage.

President Bush introduced the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 aimed at purchasing a substantial portion of troubled mortgage assets. Analysts such as Vince Reinhardt from the American Enterprise Institute contended that more robust oversight by the Treasury Department and Federal Reserve, along with congressional investigations, might have provided more effective responses to early warning signs.

Education and public health

Education was a significant focus for Bush’s administration, which increased allocations to both the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health during his early years and launched initiatives to improve science and mathematics education at the secondary level. Despite this, NIH funding experienced its first reduction in 36 years in 2006 due to inflationary pressures.

A major legislative effort was the No Child Left Behind Act, enacted in 2002 with bipartisan backing. This law sought to reduce achievement disparities, expand parental options for underperforming schools, and channel more federal resources toward schools serving low-income students. It was associated with gains in student outcomes on state-administered reading and math assessments. However, critics have pointed out that it suffered from insufficient funding and placed excessive emphasis on standardized testing.

In terms of public health policy, Bush unveiled a National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza in 2005, followed by a detailed implementation plan issued by the Homeland Security Council in 2006 that prioritized preparedness efforts.

Following his re-election, Bush signed into law a Medicare prescription drug benefit program that represented a considerable expansion of social welfare spending with projected costs nearing $7 trillion. In 2007, he vetoed an expansion of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), objecting to financing it through increased cigarette taxes and expressing concerns it would move toward socialized medicine by extending benefits to families earning up to $83,000 annually.

In 2008, Bush enacted the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, which safeguards individuals from discrimination based on genetic data in health insurance coverage and employment decisions while endorsing continued progress in genetic research.

Social services and Social Security

After Republican efforts to enact the Medicare Act of 2003, President Bush approved the legislation, which brought significant modifications to the Medicare system by offering beneficiaries support with prescription drug expenses and utilizing private insurers for benefit administration. The retired persons advocacy group AARP supported the initiative. Bush emphasized that the law, projected to cost $400 billion over a decade, would provide seniors with "greater choices and enhanced control over their health care."

At the onset of his second term, Bush introduced an ambitious plan to revamp Social Security, which faced unprecedented deficit forecasts starting in 2005. Despite resistance in Congress, he prioritized this reform within his domestic policy agenda. During his 2005 State of the Union Address, Bush warned of the program’s looming insolvency and proposed measures such as partial privatization, establishing personal Social Security accounts, and permitting Americans to allocate a portion of their Social Security tax (FICA) into secure investment options. Democrats opposed the concept of partial privatization.

To garner public backing, Bush embarked on a 60-day nationwide tour featuring media events titled "Conversations on Social Security." Nevertheless, public enthusiasm waned, prompting House Republican leaders to remove Social Security reform from their legislative agenda for 2005. By fall 2005, political repercussions from the handling of Hurricane Katrina further weakened the proposal's chances.

Environmental policies

Upon assuming office in 2001, Bush opposed the Kyoto Protocol, arguing that it excluded 80 percent of the global population and would impose annual costs amounting to tens of billions. He also referenced the 1997 Senate vote of 95–0 against ratifying the treaty.

In May 2001, Bush issued an executive order establishing an interagency task force aimed at accelerating energy projects, followed by two additional orders addressing environmental concerns.

In 2002, Bush introduced the Clear Skies Act of 2003, which sought to amend the Clean Air Act by implementing emissions trading programs to curb air pollution. Opponents contended that it would undermine current regulations by permitting increased emissions levels. The legislation did not progress through Congress.

In 2006, Bush designated the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands as the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, creating an expansive marine sanctuary covering 84 million acres. This region is home to approximately 7,000 species, many endemic to these islands, earning praise from environmental advocates for its pioneering role in conservation.

While Bush recognized that global warming is a genuine and significant concern, he maintained there was ongoing debate regarding its causes. His administration’s approach attracted criticism for allegedly minimizing scientific consensus and failing to adequately address carbon emissions and climate change mitigation efforts.

Energy policies

During his 2006 State of the Union Address, Bush acknowledged that "America is addicted to oil" and introduced the Advanced Energy Initiative aimed at enhancing research in energy development.

In the 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush reaffirmed his goal to decrease dependence on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel use and promoting increased production of alternative fuel. In response to surging gasoline prices in 2008, he lifted a federal ban on offshore drilling, although legislation still prohibited it. Bush remarked, "The only thing standing between the American people and these vast oil reserves is action from the U.S. Congress." He stressed the importance of lowering oil consumption through alternative energy technologies while urging Congress to expand domestic oil extraction.

In his 2008 State of the Union Address, Bush committed $2 billion over three years to an international fund dedicated to advancing clean energy technologies and addressing climate change. His objective was to hasten the adoption of cleaner technologies in developing countries such as India and China by attracting private investment through financial incentives. Additionally, Bush outlined plans for collaboration with major economies and the United Nations to establish a global agreement aimed at slowing and reversing greenhouse gas emissions growth, insisting that all major economies participate without exemptions.

Stem cell research and first veto

Since the enactment of the 1995 Dickey–Wicker Amendment, federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos has been restricted by both the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health. President Bush supported research on adult stem cells and approved federal funding in that area but opposed research involving embryonic stem cells. On August 9, 2001, he signed an executive order permitting federal funding for 71 existing stem cell lines, On July 19, 2006, Bush issued his first presidential veto to block the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, which sought to overturn the Dickey–Wicker Amendment and allow federal funds for research using embryonic stem cells derived from destroyed embryos.

Attempts to capture al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden were unsuccessful after his escape during the December 2001 Battle of Tora Bora, attributed to insufficient U.S. ground troop deployment. Bin Laden was ultimately killed by U.S. forces in May 2011 under President Obama's administration.

Despite early achievements, by early 2003 the Taliban had begun regrouping with increased funding and new recruits. The failure of Operation Red Wings in 2005 confirmed their resurgence. In 2006, Taliban insurgent activity escalated with large-scale offensives such as Operation Mountain Thrust, which achieved only limited success. As a result, President Bush authorized an additional deployment of 3,500 troops in March 2007.

Iraq invasion

In his January 29, 2002 State of the Union address, President Bush emphasized Iraq as a member of an "axis of evil" allied with terrorist groups, presenting it as a "serious and expanding threat" due to alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction. Intelligence from the CIA in late 2002 indicated Saddam Hussein’s efforts to revive nuclear programs and retain banned biological and chemical arms, assertions later criticized as overstated by the Bush Administration.

During late 2002 and early 2003, Bush pressed the United Nations to enforce disarmament requirements on Iraq, triggering a diplomatic standoff. UN weapons inspectors, led by Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei, were urged by the U.S. to exit Iraq shortly before the invasion despite their appeals for additional time. The U.S. pursued but ultimately withdrew a UN Security Council resolution seeking authorization for military action due to opposition. Over 20 countries, prominently the United Kingdom, formed a "coalition of the willing" joining the U.S. in invading Iraq on March 20, 2003. The Iraqi forces were rapidly defeated; Baghdad was captured on April 9, and Bush announced the end of major combat operations on May 1. Although this initial victory raised Bush’s approval ratings, a rising insurgency and sectarian conflict ensued, leading to criticism over his premature "Mission Accomplished" declaration.

Between 2004 and 2007, violence intensified into what some characterized as civil war. The bipartisan Iraq Study Group in 2006 described the situation as "serious and worsening." While Bush admitted to strategic errors concerning Iraq’s stability, he continued to support his overall approach. According to Iraq Body Count, roughly 251,000 Iraqis lost their lives following the invasion, including more than 160,000 civilians.

Iraq conducted its first free elections in decades in January 2005, resulting in Jalal Talabani becoming president and Nouri al-Maliki assuming the prime ministership. A constitutional referendum passed in October 2005 with backing from Shiite and Kurdish communities.

On January 10, 2007, Bush initiated a troop surge that added 21,500 soldiers alongside $1.2 billion allocated for reconstruction efforts. On May 1 of that year, he vetoed legislation imposing withdrawal deadlines for U.S. forces, stressing the importance of maintaining military presence despite domestic opposition.

Bush lauded the Iraqi government’s March 2008 campaign against militias as a "defining moment," noting legislative advancements that paved the way for forthcoming elections. By mid-2008, fatalities among U.S. troops had dropped to their lowest levels since the war began; this increased stability permitted further reductions in American forces. During Bush’s final visit to Iraq in December 2008, an Iraqi reporter protested by throwing shoes at him during a press conference.

In March 2010, the Center for Public Integrity reported that the Bush administration had made over 900 inaccurate statements about Iraq’s threat to justify the conflict.

Surveillance

After the September 11 attacks, President Bush authorized the President's Surveillance Program, which enabled the National Security Agency to intercept communications between suspected terrorists overseas and individuals within the U.S. without obtaining warrants, circumventing the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act. As of 2009, specifics about this program remained highly classified. Following concerns raised by the Department of Justice's Office of Legal Counsel regarding its original legality, the program was reauthorized under the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, overriding FISA warrant requirements.

The program sparked controversy; critics and entities such as the American Bar Association contended it was unlawful. In 2006, a federal court ruled NSA surveillance unconstitutional; however, this decision was overturned in 2007 due to plaintiffs lacking legal standing. On January 17, 2007, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales announced that while the program would not be renewed in its current form, it would be subjected to judicial oversight.

Later that year, the NSA introduced PRISM, a successor program monitored by the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court. PRISM became publicly known in June 2013 following disclosures by The Washington Post and The Guardian.

Interrogation policies

President Bush authorized the CIA to employ waterboarding along with other "enhanced interrogation techniques" that opponents, including Barack Obama, characterized as torture. During 2002–2003, the CIA considered certain methods lawful based on confidential Justice Department opinions which argued that terror suspects were not shielded by the Geneva Conventions' prohibition on torture. These opinions framed the conventions as "an unconstitutional infringement on the President's war powers." The CIA implemented these techniques under the authorization of the Bybee Memo, which was subsequently rescinded. Despite U.S. Army Field Manuals forbidding such harsh measures—citing their tendency to produce unreliable intelligence—the Bush administration asserted these interrogations yielded "critical information" vital for safeguarding American lives. Critics, including former CIA operative Bob Baer, contended that intelligence obtained through severe coercion was often false or misleading.

On October 17, 2006, Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006, enacted in response to the Supreme Court ruling in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (548 U.S. 557). This legislation authorized military commissions to try unlawful enemy combatants instead of traditional courts. It also stripped detainees of habeas corpus rights and prohibited torture while granting the president authority to define what constitutes "torture."

On March 8, 2008, Bush vetoed H.R. 2082, a bill aimed at increasing congressional oversight over intelligence activities and banning waterboarding along with other interrogation methods not approved by the United States Army Field Manual on Human Intelligence Collector Operations. He argued that passing this bill would eliminate "one of the most valuable tools in the War on Terror." In April 2009, the ACLU succeeded in obtaining the release of classified memos authorizing these interrogation practices. One such memo detailed specific techniques and included a footnote labeling waterboarding as torture, highlighting that the CIA’s application exceeded what was authorized by the Justice Department.

North Korea condemnation

President Bush publicly denounced Kim Jong-il and labeled North Korea as part of an "axis of evil," emphasizing that the United States would not permit threatening regimes to possess destructive weapons. Within months, both countries abandoned their commitments under the 1994 U.S.–DPRK Agreed Framework. The situation escalated when North Korea conducted a nuclear test on October 9, 2006, complicating Bush’s foreign policy focus on preventing hostile states and terrorists from acquiring weapons of mass destruction. He reiterated his dedication to achieving a "nuclear-free Korean Peninsula" and warned that any nuclear transfers by North Korea would be treated as a serious threat.

Following U.S.-China-led negotiations, on May 7, 2007, North Korea consented to deactivate its nuclear reactors pending unfreezing of assets. By September 2, 2007, Pyongyang pledged to reveal and dismantle all nuclear programs before year’s end. Nevertheless, by May 2009, North Korea had resumed its nuclear activities and issued threats against South Korea.

On June 22, 2010, Bush commented that while South Korea experienced economic growth, North Korea endured extreme poverty and oppression due to its communist system and leadership that prioritized personal luxury and nuclear armament over essential resources.

Sanctions on Syria

President Bush intensified economic penalties against Syria by enacting the Syria Accountability Act in 2003, which extended the scope of restrictions. In 2007, the Treasury Department immobilized U.S. financial accounts linked to Syrian entities suspected of supporting terrorism and weapons of mass destruction programs. Additional executive orders issued in 2004 and 2007 focused on individuals obstructing Lebanon's political stability, freezing assets of prominent figures such as Assaad Halim Hardan, Wi'am Wahhab, Hafiz Makhluf, and Muhammad Nasif Khayrbik—each associated with Syrian influence and President Bashar al-Assad.

AIDS Relief Efforts

During his 2003 State of the Union address, Bush announced the five-year President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), committing $15 billion to combat HIV/AIDS. This program facilitated antiretroviral therapy for more than 3.2 million individuals worldwide. By 2013, total U.S. expenditure on HIV/AIDS initiatives had reached $44 billion, including $7 billion allocated to the Global Fund, resulting in an estimated five million lives saved. PEPFAR played a pivotal role in curbing the HIV/AIDS crisis, particularly across Sub-Saharan Africa, and by 2023 was credited with saving over 25 million lives—earning acclaim from Vox and other commentators as "George W. Bush's greatest achievement."

White House Shooting Incident (2001)

On February 7, 2001, Robert W. Pickett discharged several rounds from a Taurus .38 Special revolver outside the White House grounds while President Bush was inside. A U.S. Secret Service agent responded by shooting Pickett in the knee and detaining him. Initially facing charges for firing a weapon during a crime punishable by up to ten years, Pickett ultimately pled guilty to a firearms offense and entered an Alford plea for assaulting a federal officer. He received a sentence of three years at the Federal Medical Center in Rochester, followed by three years probation.

Grenade Attack in Tbilisi (2005)

On May 10, 2005, Vladimir Arutyunian, an ethnic Armenian citizen of Georgia, hurled a live Soviet-era RGD-5 grenade toward the stage during a speech at Freedom Square in Tbilisi. The device landed approximately 61 feet from the podium but failed to explode because it was wrapped in a handkerchief that prevented the safety lever from disengaging. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili was present nearby at the time. Arutyunian initially fled but was apprehended in July 2005; during his arrest, he fatally shot an Interior Ministry officer. He was convicted in January 2006 and received a life sentence.

Shoe-Throwing Incident in Baghdad (2008)

On December 14, 2008, Iraqi journalist Muntadhar al-Zaidi threw both of his shoes at President Bush during a press conference held in Baghdad. Bush avoided injury by ducking under the thrown footwear. Dana Perino, then White House press secretary, sustained bruises after being struck by a microphone boom that fell amid the ensuing commotion. Al-Zaidi was sentenced to three years imprisonment; this term was later reduced to one year, and he was released early for good behavior on September 15, 2009.

Supreme Court

After Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor retired on July 1, 2005, President Bush nominated federal appellate judge John Roberts on July 19 as her replacement. However, following the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist on September 3, Bush withdrew Roberts's nomination for O'Connor's seat and instead put forward Roberts as Chief Justice on September 5. The Senate confirmed Roberts in this role on September 29.

Subsequently, Bush nominated White House Counsel Harriet Miers on October 3 to fill O'Connor's vacancy; she withdrew her nomination on October 27 due to bipartisan concerns regarding her credentials. On October 31, Bush nominated federal appellate judge Samuel Alito, who was confirmed by the Senate on January 31, 2006, to assume O'Connor's former position.

Other courts

Beyond his two Supreme Court appointments, Bush designated 62 judges to the United States courts of appeals and appointed 261 judges to the United States district courts.

Image

Bush’s persona was heavily influenced by his West Texas roots, distinctive accent, time spent at his Texas ranch, and frequent use of country-style expressions, crafting a folksy, American cowboy image. Piers Morgan likened him to the iconic figure John Wayne.

Throughout his presidency, Bush was often subjected to media satire and criticism that spotlighted his verbal missteps known as Bushisms. In contrast to his father’s approach, Bush was perceived as a visionary willing to take risks.

Former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair dismissed claims of Bush’s lack of intelligence as "ludicrous," emphasizing his intellectual acuity. The New York Times columnist David Brooks observed that Bush was "60 IQ points smarter in private," though he adopted a Texas persona publicly to connect with voters.

Job approval

At the outset of his presidency, Bush enjoyed approval ratings close to 60 percent. Following the September 11 attacks, his approval soared to 90 percent and remained between 80 and 90 percent for four months. His approval stayed above the 50 percent mark throughout most of his first term but declined sharply to as low as 19 percent during his second term.

In both 2000 and 2004, Time honored Bush as Person of the Year due to his significant influence. In May 2004, Gallup reported an 89 percent approval rating among Republican voters; however, support diminished amid concerns about government spending, immigration policies, and Middle East affairs.

Among members of the U.S. military, Bush received strong backing in the 2004 election, with 73 percent favoring him over John Kerry—largely because they believed he would see the Iraq War through to completion.

Bush’s approval climbed to 74 percent at the start of the Iraq War but fell below half by December 2004. After securing re-election in 2004, he faced increasing criticism related to the Iraq conflict, Hurricane Katrina response efforts, abuses at Abu Ghraib prison, NSA surveillance practices, the Plame affair, and controversies surrounding Guantanamo Bay.

The Democratic Party regained control of Congress during the 2006 midterm elections amid Bush’s declining popularity, which averaged around 37 percent—the lowest approval rating for any second-term president since Truman in 1951—contributing to substantial Republican losses that cycle. Throughout 2007, Bush’s approval remained in the mid-thirties range.

By early 2008, during his final year in office, Bush's approval hit a record low of 19 percent due to diminishing support within his own party. Despite being labeled by some as "the worst president," Bush maintained that he made decisions grounded in principle rather than public opinion polls.

Although there were calls for impeachment focusing on issues such as NSA surveillance programs, justification for the Iraq War, and alleged violations of the Geneva Conventions, these efforts never gained majority public backing. Representative Dennis Kucinich introduced articles of impeachment in June 2008; however, Speaker Nancy Pelosi declared that impeachment was "off the table."

In April 2008, Gallup recorded an unprecedented disapproval rate of 69 percent compared to an approval rating of only 28 percent—though approximately two-thirds of Republicans continued to support his performance.

Polls conducted prior to the 2008 election indicated historically low approval ratings between 19 and 20 percent alongside disapproval levels reaching up to 75 percent. A January 2009 Gallup survey placed Bush’s final approval at 34 percent—similar to ratings for Jimmy Carter and Harry S. Truman—while a CBS News/New York Times poll documented an all-time low final approval rating of just 22 percent.

International viewpoints

President Bush encountered widespread global disapproval and resistance from international anti-war and anti-globalization factions as a result of his administration's foreign policy decisions. Even longstanding allies like France exhibited more unfavorable opinions of him compared to earlier U.S. presidents.

Despite occasional official disagreements, Bush maintained particularly strong personal relationships with Tony Blair of the United Kingdom and Vicente Fox of Mexico. Conversely, leaders such as Hamid Karzai from Afghanistan, Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero of Spain, and Hugo Chávez of Venezuela were openly critical of Bush. His rapport with Vladimir Putin deteriorated during the latter part of his presidency.

By 2006, negative assessments of Bush were dominant in 18 out of 21 countries surveyed, with many respondents expressing concerns about his administration’s impact on global security. According to the 2007 Pew Global Attitudes Project, international approval of the United States and its citizens declined throughout his term, with majorities endorsing Bush’s leadership in only nine nations, including India, Israel, and several African countries. A 2007 poll conducted in six Arab states identified Bush as the world's most unpopular leader.

During a June 2007 visit to predominantly Muslim Albania, Bush was met with enthusiastic support. Albania, home to approximately 2.8 million residents and contributors to military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, demonstrated strong backing for U.S. foreign policy. The capital city Tirana prominently displayed a large portrait of Bush alongside Albanian and American flags, named a street in his honor, and unveiled a statue in Fushë-Krujë. Nevertheless, U.S. endorsement of the unilateral declaration of independence by the Albanian-majority region of Kosovo led to strained relations with Serbia, culminating in the February 2008 arson attack on the U.S. embassy in Belgrade.

Place of residence

Following the inauguration of Barack Obama, Bush and his family returned to their ranch located in Crawford, Texas after participating in a celebratory event in Midland, Texas. Subsequently, they acquired a residence in Dallas’ Preston Hollow neighborhood, where they continue to live.

Bush has remained visible within the Dallas–Fort Worth region by attending various events such as performing the opening coin toss at the Dallas Cowboys’ inaugural game at the new Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, and throwing out the first pitch at a 2009 game for the Texas Rangers, where he was warmly welcomed. He was present at every home playoff game during the Rangers’ 2010 season and threw the ceremonial first pitch at Game 4 of the 2010 World Series alongside his father. More recently, he threw out the first pitch for Game 1 of the 2023 World Series.

On August 6, 2013, Bush successfully underwent treatment for a coronary artery obstruction that was identified during a routine health examination.

In response to the 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers, Bush conveyed his sympathies by stating: "Laura and I are heartbroken by the heinous acts of violence in our city last night. Murdering the innocent is always evil, never more so than when the lives taken belong to those who protect our families and communities."

Publications and appearances

Since departing from public office, Bush has kept a relatively subdued presence while actively promoting greater involvement of women in global political and social spheres. He has highlighted the significance of women's contributions to democratic movements and the advancement of civil society internationally.

In March 2009, Bush gave his inaugural post-presidential address in Calgary, Alberta, and later appeared via video on The Colbert Report, where he expressed support for U.S. military personnel. That same year, he attended the funeral of Senator Ted Kennedy and made his debut as a motivational speaker at a seminar in Dallas during October. Following the Fort Hood shooting, the Bush family privately visited survivors and relatives of victims.

Bush published his memoirs, Decision Points, in November 2010, emphasizing national security as his administration’s foremost achievement while acknowledging Social Security reform as his most significant shortcoming. He defended the use of enhanced interrogation methods under his tenure, including waterboarding. In 2012, he penned the foreword for The 4% Solution: Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs, released by the George W. Bush Presidential Center, and introduced the book at an event in Dallas. That year also saw him appear via video at the Republican National Convention endorsing Mitt Romney.

In 2013, Bush and his wife Laura appeared together on NBC's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, where he mentioned his practice of refraining from publicly criticizing those who succeeded him. He openly disagreed with President Obama’s 2011 decision to withdraw troops from Iraq, describing it as a "strategic blunder." Later that year, Bush joined Obama along with former presidents Clinton and Carter at Nelson Mandela’s memorial service.

At the 2014 United States–Africa Leaders Summit, Bush co-hosted a forum focused on education and health alongside spouses of African leaders, advocating for the removal of laws that obstruct HIV/AIDS treatment access. Later in 2014, he promoted awareness of the forthcoming Museum of the Bible and authored a biography about his father titled 41: A Portrait of My Father.

During a 2015 interview, Bush endorsed deploying "boots on the ground" to combat ISIS and defended his administration’s troop surge in Iraq. Throughout the 2016 Republican primaries, he supported his brother Jeb Bush’s campaign but refrained from endorsing nominee Donald Trump or attending the convention. Privately, he voiced concerns about the Republican Party’s trajectory, fearing he might be its final presidential representative. Reports indicate he left his presidential ballot blank in the general election that year.

Following Trump's electoral victory, Bush and his family extended their congratulations by phone. He was present at Trump’s inauguration in 2017, where images capturing his difficulty managing a rain poncho went viral. He reportedly described the event as "some weird shit."

In February 2017, Bush released Portraits of Courage, a collection showcasing portraits of military veterans. After the Unite the Right rally in August that year, he and his father jointly condemned white nationalist violence and bigotry during a New York speech that urged protection of American democratic values—a message widely interpreted as a critique of Trumpism despite no explicit references.

Bush delivered remarks at John McCain’s funeral in September 2018. Following his father’s passing in November, he gave a eulogy at the December funeral service. In May 2019, Bush traveled to South Korea to commemorate former President Roh Moo-hyun on the tenth anniversary of his death.

In June 2020, Bush issued a statement denouncing racial injustice after George Floyd’s killing, calling on America to confront its "tragic failures." The following month, he attended civil rights leader John Lewis’s funeral alongside former presidents Clinton and Obama.

During the 2020 presidential election cycle, Bush did not endorse any candidate but hosted virtual fundraisers supporting vulnerable Republican senators. He chose not to attend that year's Republican National Convention and later disclosed that he wrote in Condoleezza Rice instead of voting for Trump or Biden. After Biden was declared winner, Bush congratulated both Biden and Trump while affirming confidence in the election's integrity.

In response to the January 6 Capitol riot in 2021, Bush joined other former presidents in condemning the violence as an insurrection and denounced such acts as contrary to American values. He participated in Biden’s inauguration later that month.

Bush criticized Biden's 2021 decision to withdraw U.S. forces from Afghanistan, labeling it a mistake likely to create a perilous power vacuum. On September 11 of that year, he spoke at Flight 93 National Memorial paying tribute to American fortitude.

In July 2024, Bush condemned an assassination attempt on Trump as "cowardly" but did not attend that year's Republican National Convention nor endorse any presidential contender. Following Trump and JD Vance's victories in November 2024, Bush extended congratulations to them both while commending democratic engagement. He attended Trump’s second inauguration on January 20, 2025.

Collaborations

In response to President Obama's call in January 2010, Bush and Bill Clinton founded the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund to gather donations for relief and reconstruction efforts following the 2010 Haiti earthquake.

On May 2, 2011, President Obama notified Bush of the death of Osama bin Laden. The Bush family joined the Obamas in New York City for the tenth anniversary commemoration of the September 11 attacks, where Bush delivered a letter originally written by President Abraham Lincoln to a widow who had lost five sons during the Civil War.

On September 7, 2017, Bush collaborated with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Barack Obama through the One America Appeal to support those affected by Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma across the Gulf Coast and Texas.

Bush has sustained a cordial rapport with Michelle Obama, who referred to them as "forever seatmates" at official gatherings, frequently partnering at events involving former presidents. Notably, Bush discreetly offered mints to Michelle Obama during John McCain’s funeral in September 2018 and repeated this gesture at the memorial service for his father that December.

Art

Following his presidency, Bush embraced painting, drawing inspiration from Winston Churchill’s essay "Painting as a Pastime." His artwork encompasses portraits of individuals, dogs, still lifes, self-portraits, and depictions of global leaders like Vladimir Putin and Tony Blair. In February 2017, he released Portraits of Courage, a collection showcasing veterans’ portraits, with all net proceeds benefiting the George W. Bush Presidential Center. In May 2019, he created a portrait of former South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun as a gift to his family.

Legacy

Bush’s legacy is multifaceted and continues to be reassessed. Advocates praise his counterterrorism strategies for averting additional major terrorist incidents post-September 11 and highlight programs such as the Medicare prescription drug benefit and PEPFAR AIDS relief initiative. Conversely, critics point to his management of the Iraq War—especially the failure to uncover weapons of mass destruction—alongside controversies regarding tax reforms, response to Hurricane Katrina, positions on climate change, and the 2008 financial crisis. Former Nuremberg prosecutor Ben Ferencz has accused Bush of potential war crimes related to Iraq.

Numerous historians consider Bush among the most impactful U.S. presidents. Princeton academic Julian Zelizer described his presidency as "transformative," suggesting that evaluations will gain depth over time. Media commentary from outlets like The Huffington Post underscored his substantial expansion of executive power through legislation such as the Patriot Act. His administration enacted the largest tax reductions since Ronald Reagan’s era and introduced homeland security reforms marking the most significant growth in federal government since the Great Society programs.

Throughout and following his time in office, Bush has been frequently depicted in film and television, earning nicknames including "Dubya," "GWB," and "Shrub."

Reception

Assessments of George W. Bush's presidency by presidential scholars during the late 2000s and 2010s generally place his tenure below the median. In a 2010 survey conducted by the Siena Research Institute, Bush was ranked 39th out of 43 presidents, with particularly low marks in areas such as economic stewardship, communication skills, willingness to compromise, foreign affairs, and intelligence. Reflecting on his legacy in 2013, Bush expressed confidence that history would ultimately evaluate his choices fairly. By 2021, C-SPAN's historian survey showed an improved ranking for Bush at 29th place, up from 36th in 2009.

Public sentiment toward Bush has seen a gradual improvement since he left office in 2009. Gallup data indicates an increase in his favorability rating from 35% in March 2009 to 45% by July 2010. A poll conducted in June 2013 revealed that positive opinions slightly outweighed negative ones (49% favorable versus 46% unfavorable). Additional surveys corroborate this trend of rising personal approval. The Washington Post-ABC poll in April 2013 recorded Bush’s highest approval rating since December 2005 at 47%, equaling that of President Obama at the time. Noteworthy gains were observed among senior citizens, white voters without college degrees, and moderate to conservative Democrats, even though a majority disapproved of his economic management (53%) and handling of the Iraq War (57%). A CNN poll from April 2013 found that 55% considered his presidency unsuccessful, with independents showing a divided stance.

By 2017, Bush’s public image had further improved; a YouGov survey indicated that 51% of Democrats viewed him favorably. A CNN poll in 2018 reported a favorable opinion of 61%, marking a nine-point increase since 2015. This shift has been linked to Democrats’ more positive perceptions of Bush when compared to Donald Trump’s presidency—a viewpoint Bush himself has acknowledged.

Honors and awards

In Tirana, Albania, a street located adjacent to the Albanian Parliament—formerly known as Rruga Punëtorët e Rilindjes—was renamed in honor of George W. Bush shortly before his groundbreaking visit in 2007 as the first sitting American president to visit Albania. In recognition of his contributions to NATO's enlargement, Estonian President Toomas Hendrik Ilves presented Bush with the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana in 2012. Additionally, two elementary schools carry his name: one within California’s Stockton Unified School District and another situated in the Wylie Independent School District near Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas.

Perspectives on the Bush Administration

• Barnes, Fred. Rebel-in-Chief: The Transformation of the Conservative Movement and America Under George W. Bush (2006)
• Bartlett, Bruce. Impostor: How George W. Bush Undermined America's Finances and Departed from Reagan's Legacy (2006)
• Cheney, Dick. In My Time: A Memoir of Personal and Political Experiences (2011)
• Draper, Robert. Inside the Bush White House: An Account of George W. Bush's Presidency (2007)
• Ferguson, Michaele L. and Lori Jo Marso. W Stands for Women: The Influence of George W. Bush’s Presidency on Gender Politics (2007)
• Gerson, Michael J. Heroic Conservatism: The Necessity for Republicans to Uphold American Ideals (and the Consequences of Failure) (2007)
• Greenspan, Alan. The Age of Turbulence: Navigating a New Global Landscape (2007)
• Hayes, Stephen F. Cheney: The Untold Story of America's Most Influential and Controversial Vice President (2007)
• Hughes, Karen. George W. Bush: A Leadership Portrait (2005)
• Mabry, Marcus. Twice as Good: Condoleezza Rice’s Journey to Power (2007)
• Moore, James and Wayne Slater. Bush's Brain: The Role of Karl Rove in Shaping George W. Bush's Presidency (2003)
• Rice, Condoleezza. No Higher Honor: Reflections on My Years in Washington (2011)
• Rumsfeld, Donald. Known and Unknown: A Memoir (2011)
• Suskind, Ron. The Price of Loyalty: Inside George W. Bush’s White House and Paul O'Neill’s Education (2004)
• Woodward, Bob. Plan of Attack (2003)

Foundational Documents

• Bush, George W. A Charge to Keep (1999)
• Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President (published annually since 1947), providing essential analysis of economic trends and policies with supporting data
• Bush, George W. George W. Bush on God and Country: The President Discusses Faith, Principles, and Patriotism (2004)
• Bush, George W. Decision Points (2010)

External links

• George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum
• Official White House biography
• Complete audio recordings of selected speeches
• Archived version of the White House website
• Compilation of George W. Bush's writings on the Troubled Asset Relief Program