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Gusen concentration camp

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Gusen Concentration Camp
Company typeSubcamp of Mauthausen concentration camp
IndustryForced labor, armaments manufacturing
Founded1940
Headquarters
Sankt Georgen an der Gusen and Langenstein
,
Austria (Reichsgau Ostmark, Nazi Germany)
Area served
Nazi Germany and occupied territories
ProductsGranite, Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter fuselages, armaments

Gusen Concentration Camp

Gusen functioned as a subcamp under the administration of the Mauthausen concentration camp system, managed by the SS (Schutzstaffel). It was situated between the villages of Sankt Georgen an der Gusen and Langenstein within the Reichsgau Ostmark, now part of the Perg District in Upper Austria. The prisoner population was predominantly Polish, alongside significant groups of Spanish Republicans, Soviet nationals, and Italians. Initially, inmates were assigned to labor in nearby quarries extracting granite, which was commercialized by the SS-owned firm DEST.

The conditions at Gusen were notably harsher than those at Mauthausen’s main camp, reflecting its role in the Nazi policy of extermination through labor targeting both actual and perceived adversaries. Prisoners often survived no longer than six months. It is estimated that a minimum of 35,000 individuals perished at Gusen due to forced labor, starvation, and systematic executions. Beginning in 1943, the camp evolved into a crucial manufacturing hub for armaments linked to Messerschmitt and Steyr-Daimler-Puch. To accommodate increased production demands, the original camp was renamed Gusen I, with two additional camps, Gusen II and Gusen III, established nearby. Inmates were compelled to build extensive subterranean factories, the most significant being the Bergkristall [de; es], designed specifically for assembling Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter aircraft. By the conclusion of World War II, close to one thousand aircraft fuselages had been completed there.

Liberation came on the morning of 5 May 1945 when forces from the United States' 11th Armored Division and 26th Infantry Division arrived. Amidst the turmoil following liberation, several former kapos were killed by other prisoners. Postwar trials were held against some SS members and kapos responsible for atrocities, although many escaped punishment. The area has since been transformed into a privately owned settlement; however, a small museum operated by the Austrian government preserves its history.

Background

Following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I, the majority of Austrians favored unification with Germany. However, the Allied powers prohibited holding a plebiscite and compelled the newly formed nation to adopt the name "Republic of Austria" instead of "Republic of German-Austria." On 13 March 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria in an event known as the Anschluss, which was welcomed by large crowds. Shortly thereafter, a campaign of repression targeted anti-Nazi activists, Jewish individuals, and those mistakenly identified as Jews. The Gestapo set up an office in Vienna just two days following the annexation. Numerous arrests were made, with many detainees sent to Dachau concentration camp.

In May 1938, an SS delegation including Theodor Eicke and Oswald Pohl selected the site for the Mauthausen concentration camp. Alongside Flossenbürg concentration camp, its primary function was to supply granite for various Nazi architectural projects. The location was chosen due to its proximity to quarries near the villages of Mauthausen and Sankt Georgen an der Gusen, which were leased by the SS-owned enterprise DEST. Situated approximately 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Linz, the camp was formally established in August 1938. By September's end, prisoners transferred from Dachau had completed barracks for both inmates and SS personnel. The quarry at Gusen was located on land leased and later acquired from the Poschacher [de] company. It is probable that plans for a concentration camp were already underway prior to Mauthausen’s establishment, as the lease agreement for the Gusen quarry predates that for Mauthausen.

Establishment

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 192-286, KZ Mauthausen, Aufbau des Lagers Gusen.jpg
Erection of barracks at Gusen (1940)

Gusen became the first and largest subcamp of Mauthausen. Its origins trace back to December 1939 when a small group of 10 to 12 prisoners from Germany and Austria were assigned to construct barracks near the Gusen quarry, located about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from Mauthausen. The camp’s creation aimed to enhance labor efficiency by housing workers closer to the quarry north of Mauthausen, thereby eliminating the time lost traveling between sites. Among all local quarries linked to Mauthausen, Gusen yielded the highest quality granite used in architectural projects; it also produced freestone, paving stones, and gravel marketed by DEST. By January 1940, prisoner numbers on this work detail had grown to 400, including Polish detainees from March onward. Inmates lacked adequate clothing such as coats or gloves and were denied access to fires lit by kapos and SS guards during cold conditions. Approximately 1,800 prisoners from Mauthausen perished between December and April, many succumbing while engaged in construction work at Gusen. The camp officially opened on 25 May 1940 when the first group of prisoners and guards relocated there. Positioned adjacent to the road connecting Sankt Georgen an der Gusen with nearby Langenstein, former inmates recalled Austrian children passing by en route to school. Until completion of the camp’s perimeter wall, passersby had an unobstructed view into its interior activities.

Conditions

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 192-248, KZ Mauthausen, Latrinen im Lager Gusen.jpg
Latrines at Gusen

Among the concentration camps, only Mauthausen and Gusen received the SS's highest classification of Category III, with conditions at Gusen being notably more severe than at the primary camp. During 1940 and 1941, prisoners had an average survival span of merely six months, and their average body weight between 1940 and 1942 hovered around 40 kilograms (88 lb). In late 1941, a typhus outbreak led to the systematic extermination of infected inmates. The camp’s principal objective was extermination through forced labor targeting both actual and alleged political adversaries of the Reich, rather than maximizing economic gain from slave labor, resulting in mortality rates surpassing those of most other camps. While one group of prisoners perished, new arrivals continually replenished the population. Consequently, despite the elevated death toll, prisoner numbers remained steady between approximately 6,000 and 7,000 until 1943. Quarry labor, deliberately designed to cause prisoner deaths, persisted throughout the war even after war production facilities commenced operations. Inmates endured starvation-level food rations, grueling forced labor, and frequent beatings inflicted by guards and kapos, all while lacking adequate sanitary provisions. The prisoner housing area formed a rectangular enclosure measuring 180 by 400 metres (590 ft × 1,310 ft), containing 32 barracks and encircled by barbed wire. Originally intended to accommodate 4,000 to 5,000 individuals, the camp soon exceeded this capacity. Twice daily roll calls were held at the eastern end’s plaza. Expansion of the camp was driven by demand for stone from the Gusen, Kastenhof, and Pierbauer quarries throughout Austria.

SS command

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 192-206, KZ Mauthausen, SS-Männer vor Gefangenen.jpg
SS men at Gusen, October 1941
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 192-150, KZ Mauthausen, Wachturm des Lagers Gusen (cropped).jpg
Stone watchtower and double fences

The commandants overseeing Gusen answered directly to Mauthausen’s commandant SS-Obersturmbannführer Franz Ziereis. The initial commandant was Anton Streitwieser; he was removed in May 1940 after being caught operating an unauthorized pig farm fed with rations stolen from prisoners’ supplies. From 25 May 1940 until either October 1942 or January 1943, SS-Hauptsturmführer Karl Chmielewski served as commandant. A member of the SS since 1932 and part of the camp SS since 1935, Chmielewski’s Rapportführer was Anton Streitwieser and Kurt Kirchner led labor services. Known for frequent intoxication, Chmielewski personally inflicted severe physical abuse including beating, kicking, whipping, and killing prisoners; he exercised considerable autonomy in managing the camp and ensured a regime marked by cruelty and sadism. Under his leadership, half of all prisoners perished. Friedrich August Seidler succeeded him as commandant from October 1942 until war’s end. Seidler favored a more "Prussian-style" harshness compared to his predecessor’s indiscriminate brutality. Until 1943, Gusen functioned more as a branch of Mauthausen rather than a true subcamp but maintained distinct administrative units such as the Political Department.

Initially constructed from wood with machine guns and searchlights installed on watchtowers, these were later replaced by granite structures. Alongside the barbed-wire perimeter fence erected in 1941 stood a two-meter-high stone wall; guards patrolled the space between these barriers. A third barbed-wire fence enclosed the entire camp complex including external factories and quarries. The SS maintained separate barracks outside the prisoner area for their personnel. By February 1940 approximately 600 SS guards were stationed (one guard per ten inmates), increasing to 2,000 by later years and reaching about 3,000 by 1944. These guards belonged to four Camp SS companies under SS-Totenkopfsturmbann Mauthausen. In early 1945 many were conscripted into the Kampfgruppe Oberdonau, replaced by Viennese firefighters, former Wehrmacht soldiers, and Volkssturm militia members. At Gusen, Nazi human experimentation occurred including surgical procedures and tuberculosis trials conducted by SS physician Helmuth Vetter, who arrived in 1944. His tuberculosis experiments involved injecting healthy prisoners’ lungs with phlegmonic pus; victims were then forced to run until collapse before being killed via benzene lung injections that prolonged suffering.

Most prisoner functionaries such as block leaders were German criminal inmates initially selected by Chmielewski. Some kapos gained notoriety for their cruelty; for instance, Wolf—a German—executed prisoners by hanging and trampling their bodies. Spanish kapos included Asturias, Félix Domingo, Indalecio González González, Losa, Tomás, and an individual known as "el Negro." Austrian kapo Rudolf Fiegl participated in gassing prisoners. On Sundays football matches were held on the Appellplatz for SS entertainment; participants received additional food rations as rewards. In 1942 a Nazi camp brothel was established within the camp to reduce coercion of young male inmates by prisoner functionaries seeking sexual favors. Ten women classified as "Aryan" were forced into prostitution under false promises of freedom; most were later conscripted into a women’s Waffen-SS unit in March 1945.

Execution

File:Gusen concentration camp crematorium.jpg
Crematorium at Gusen
File:Postwar demonstration of SS punishment at Gusen.jpg
Former inmate reenacts SS disciplinary method

Prisoners who could no longer endure forced labor were transferred from Mauthausen to Gusen for execution. Upon arrival at Gusen, the SS compelled new inmates to run as a test of their physical condition. Those failing to meet the required standard were immediately executed—this fate affected approximately 3,000 of the initial 10,000 prisoners sent there. Since these individuals were never officially registered, their deaths were excluded from formal records.[1][2] Following the escape of two Polish inmates, Victor Lukawski and Franc Kapacki, on 13 August 1940, the entire group of 800 prisoners assigned to their work detail was subjected to grueling forced runs carrying rocks and brutal beatings by SS guards. Subsequently, they were ordered to stand at attention overnight without nourishment. This punishment resulted in the deaths of fourteen Polish prisoners as well as Lukawski and Kapacki, who were recaptured and fatally beaten days later.[3]

Construction of the Gusen crematorium, a double-chamber furnace produced by Topf and Sons, commenced in December 1940.[4][5] The facility became operational by late 1941[6] and was overseen by SS-Oberscharführer Karl Wassner.[7]

A novel execution technique called Totbaden (death baths) was developed either by Chmielewski[8] or SS-Hauptscharführer Heinz Jentsch [pl][7]. This method involved forcing prisoners deemed unfit for work or targeted for death to stand beneath cold water showers until they perished—a process lasting from twenty minutes up to two hours. The drainage was deliberately blocked so that any attempt to evade the water resulted in drowning. Official death certificates recorded fabricated causes of death following these executions.[9][8][10] This form of killing was unique to Gusen and considered inefficient by SS statisticians. During winter months, groups of 150 prisoners were stripped naked and forced to stand outside Block 32 overnight; typically, half would succumb before dawn and the remainder would die the following day.[11]

In the war’s closing period, an improvised gas chamber was established within a rudimentary converted barracks at Gusen. Estimates suggest that approximately 800[12] or over 1,000 prisoners[13] were killed there. Earlier, on 26 March 1942, roughly 100 Soviet POWs were executed using Zyklon B in Block 16.[4] Other victims were transported to Mauthausen for gassing or murdered in a gas van traveling between Mauthausen and Gusen.[13][12] Beginning in early 1942, prisoners who were ill were selected at Gusen for extermination at the gas chamber located in the Hartheim Euthanasia Center, with an estimated total of 1,100 victims originating from Gusen.[14] In April 1945 alone, 800 inmates were beaten to death at Gusen II before being transported to Gusen I for cremation.[15] Official documentation records a total of 27,842 deaths at Gusen; however, actual fatalities are believed to exceed 35,000[16] and may surpass 37,000.[15] More than 10,000 deaths are thought to have occurred during 1945 alone.[17]

Official death statistics[6]
1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 Through April 1945

|- 

|colspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | 1,522
|colspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | 5,570
|colspan="1" style="text-align: center;" |3,890
|colspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | 5,116
|colspan="1" style="text-align: center;" |4,004
|colspan="1" style="text-align: center;" |7,740

|}


Prisoners

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 192-205, KZ Mauthausen, sowjetische Kriegsgefangene.jpg
Soviet prisoners of war held at Gusen, October 1941

Throughout most of its existence—excluding the years 1940 and 1943—the subcamp Gusen housed a larger prisoner population than the main camp.[18] Until 1944, inmates at Gusen were officially recorded under the main camp’s registry.[19] Originally, Gusen was established as a "reeducation camp" targeting Polish intellectuals. The initial group of Polish detainees arrived on the very day the camp commenced operations. By the close of 1940, approximately eight thousand Polish prisoners had been transferred to this subcamp, primarily from Dachau and Sachsenhausen, with around 1,500 having perished by that time.[20][19] On 24 January 1941, the first contingent of Republican veterans from the Spanish Civil War was brought to Gusen. These 3,846 Spaniards constituted the majority of arrivals during the initial half of 1941. Despite being subjected to brutal treatment by SS guards—resulting in a 60% death rate by the end of that year, mainly due to quarry labor—the Spanish prisoners became known for their mutual support and unity.[21] Out of more than 4,200 Spaniards who passed through Gusen, only 444 survived until 1944.[11]

By mid-1941, with the arrival of personnel involved in Aktion T4, Poles and Spaniards formed the majority of inmates; those deemed unfit for labor were selected for execution by T4 staff.[22] In that same year, numerous Dutch Jews were deported to Mauthausen; none survived.[23][24] Late in 1941 and throughout 1942, large numbers of Soviet POWs were sent to Gusen. Until 1943, when mortality reached 90%, these Soviet prisoners were kept separately and registered apart from other detainees.[25] From 1942 onward, prisoners from Yugoslavia, Soviet civilians, as well as a small number of French inmates detained under the Nacht und Nebel directive arrived at the camp.[4][6] The first Italian prisoners appeared in September 1943, facing extremely high fatality rates.[26] Additionally, some Allied airmen shot down nearby were imprisoned there.[6] The establishment of Gusen II in 1944 primarily housed Soviet and Italian detainees.[27] The SS deliberately fostered hostility among prisoners of varying nationalities.[28] Organized resistance within Gusen was minimal or nonexistent.[29] In early 1945, select German and Austrian criminal inmates secured their release by enlisting in the Waffen-SS.[15]

Aircraft production

File:B8 Bergkristall Stollen.jpg
Inside view of the Bergkristall tunnels

Beginning in 1943,[6] the camp’s function shifted from quarry labor to manufacturing armaments within extensive underground facilities designed to shield production from Allied air raids. Initial excavation efforts were undertaken by the Kellerbau Kommando at Gusen’s original site, a task marked by extremely high mortality among workers. The tunnels initially served as production sites for Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter planes.[30] This initiative gained critical importance following the bombing raid on the Messerschmitt factory in Regensburg during the Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission on 17 August 1943.[30][31] Subsequently, Gusen and Flossenbürg together accounted for approximately 35% of fighter aircraft output.[30] By July 1944, around four thousand prisoners at Gusen were engaged in aircraft manufacturing; monthly shipments included seventy-seven trainloads of aircraft components.[32] Elsewhere northeast of the original camp site, sixteen large warehouses operated by Steyr-Daimler-Puch AG saw prisoners producing rifles, machine guns, and aircraft engines.[33][16]

Within these tunnels, prisoner laborers were overseen by Messerschmitt personnel—engineers, foremen, and skilled workers—who faced capital punishment if they disclosed project details to outsiders. By January 1944, engineer Karl Fiebinger’s designs envisioned an underground complex spanning 50,000 square metres (540,000 sq ft), equivalent to 12 acres (4.9 ha), extending over 22 kilometres (14 mi), known as Bergkristall [de ; es ], or B8/"Esche 2". Its entrance lay approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northwest from the camp itself. This facility was planned as an underground factory dedicated to producing Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter fuselages at a rate of up to 1,250 units monthly[34][35], including all necessary slat components.[36] Construction commenced in March 1945 but remained unfinished when liberation occurred.[37] Nonetheless, aircraft assembly began early that year; prior to May 1st, a total of 987 fuselages had been completed.[34][35] Prisoners performed most manufacturing tasks including quality assurance under employment by Messerschmitt through the SS-owned company DEST.[38][32] During bombing raids, local Austrian civilians were ordered into these tunnels where they remained separated from prisoners only by wooden partitions.[15]

The arms production workforce required specialized skills making these prisoners less easily replaced than others. The emphasis on rapid tunnel expansion and construction progress vastly outweighed concerns for prisoner welfare—resulting in catastrophic consequences for their survival rates.[33] Initially forced to walk to Bergkristall daily, prisoners later utilized a dedicated railway transporting one hundred inmates per cattle car.[27] Work shifts alternated weekly between days and nights; inmates endured up to fourteen hours daily commuting or laboring inside tunnels where dense dust necessitated headlamps for operating pneumatic drills. The harsh environment depleted their strength rapidly; approximately one hundred prisoners died each day within these tunnels alone.[27]

Subcamps

Aerial reconnaissance picture
Aerial view of Gusen I (right) and II (left)

In 1944, two additional subcamps were established at Gusen, with the original camp being renamed "Gusen I".[2] Gusen II commenced operations on 9 March and was situated near the primary camp, separated merely by a potato field along the St. Georgen road. Its inmate population, projected to reach 10,000, was primarily engaged in arms manufacturing at the Bergkristall facility;[2][30] others were employed by Steyr-Daimler-Puch.[2] The guard contingent at Gusen II largely consisted of Luftwaffe guards,[30][35] numbering approximately 2,000 by the conclusion of the war.[39] Among the principal labor detachments, Bergkristall-Fertigung served the Luftwaffe while Bergkristall-Bau was under SS control.[30] By late 1944, Gusen II housed around 12,000 prisoners.[37]

Located roughly 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) to the north near Lungitz, Gusen III accommodated 260 prisoners who worked in a brick factory and produced components for Messerschmitt, operating out of barracks rather than subterranean tunnels.[2][34] Some inmates were assigned to a tunnel construction project linking Lungitz with St. Georgen. Testimonies indicate that conditions at Gusen III were reportedly harsher than those in the other subcamps.[27] Both subcamps fell under the leadership of SS-Obersturmführer Max Pausch [pl].[30] Despite efforts by a specialized counter-intelligence unit, information about aircraft production at Gusen II reached United States intelligence from members of the Austrian resistance on 3 December 1944.[40]

Liberation

File:Survivor of Gusen.jpg
A survivor

At the end of January 1944, prisoner numbers stood at 7,312 but surged to 24,250 across all three subcamps by year’s end before declining to 20,487 by 4 May 1945.[6][18] Approximately 4,000 detainees from the Warsaw Uprising arrived at Gusen in late 1944, with further inmates transferred following evacuations of camps ahead of advancing Allied forces in early 1945. By March’s close, around 24,000 prisoners were held across the three camps; in April, additional transfers occurred from subcamps nearer to combat zones.[41] Many inmates had become Muselmänner—severely emaciated—and suffered from diseases such as typhus, dysentery, tuberculosis, or pneumonia; some lacked adequate clothing. Overcrowding forced three prisoners per bunk, with conditions particularly dire in Block 31 where those afflicted with dysentery were left on floors without food.[15]

In April 1945, Ziereis considered exterminating all 40,000 prisoners at Gusen by sealing them within tunnels and detonating explosives.[42] He relayed this directive to Seidler; by 28 April an ammunition depot was established nearby. Two entrances to the Sandkeller tunnels at Gusen I were sealed off and charges placed at Kellerbau and Bergkristall tunnel entrances.[43] This "murderous brainstorming," as historian Daniel Blatman describes it, never materialized due to the disintegration of Nazi command.[42] Beginning on the night of 2–3 May, numerous SS personnel deserted individually; more departed in groups on 3 May under pretense of combating Soviet forces but mostly hid in nearby forests and hills.[44] Over the following day, prisoners gradually recognized their liberation; able-bodied inmates began leaving the camp.[45][46] When elements of the United States 11th Armored Division and 26th Infantry Division arrived early on 5 May most SS guards had already fled.[2][47][48]

Staff Sergeant Albert J. Kosiek led a platoon from the 41st Cavalry Squadron tasked with investigating a suspected enemy stronghold near Mauthausen and inspecting a bridge near Gusen intended for use by American tanks. He first reached Gusen III where newly assigned guards—former Vienna firemen—readily surrendered. Only two American soldiers remained to escort these guards to brigade headquarters. North of St. Georgen, Kosiek encountered a Red Cross representative who informed him of a concentration camp at Mauthausen and about 400 SS members seeking to surrender. Lacking sufficient troops to accept their surrender immediately, Kosiek tested the bridge and bypassed both Gusen II and I en route to Mauthausen.[49] Within twenty-four hours, remaining SS personnel destroyed all documents related to the Messerschmitt 262 within the Gusen crematorium. Upon returning to headquarters the next day, Kosiek accepted surrender from approximately 800 SS members at Gusen.[50] Additional American forces arrived later that day amid chaotic scenes where prisoners fought each other using weapons abandoned by fleeing SS guards. Many severely ill inmates had been confined without sustenance or water; upon liberation only one or two were often found alive in these barracks. A group of kapos responsible for atrocities barricaded themselves within Block 32; some committed suicide while others were killed by fellow prisoners.[51]

Aftermath

File:KZ Gusen I - Jourhaus (Main Entrance to former Concentration Camp).jpg
Main entrance building of the former Gusen I camp
File:KZ Gusen Mahnmal-01.jpg
Rudolf Burger's memorial located in Sankt Georgen an der Gusen

In the wake of liberation, some ex-kapos were killed by surviving inmates. Although German-speaking prisoners who provoked the majority Polish inmates faced the greatest danger of lynching, most prisoners prioritized securing food over seeking vengeance, allowing many kapos to evade harm and avoid prosecution for their offenses. Conflicts erupted between Russian and Polish prisoners, necessitating their separation by force. During the subsequent weeks, local Austrian residents lived in fear of rogue SS members, marauding kapos, and former detainees. On 8 May, Nazi Party members were compelled to inter the dead in a potato field situated between Gusen I and II, with local civilians forced to witness the burial. By 27 July 1945, American forces withdrew from the region in accordance with the Yalta Agreement, removing all incomplete aircraft stored within the tunnels. Prisoners too debilitated to relocate were handed over to Soviet occupation authorities.

At least sixteen former guards and kapos faced conviction during the Mauthausen Trial held at Dachau. Rudolf Fiegl, a former kapo, was sentenced to death and executed for participating in prisoner gassings; similarly, SS doctor Vetter received the death penalty. Chmielewski initially evaded capture but was identified and arrested in Austria in 1956 under false identification. Following his 1961 trial, he was found guilty of 282 murders and sentenced to life imprisonment. Jentsch, implicated in the so-called "death baths," was apprehended in West Germany, tried in Hagen in 1967, convicted, and likewise sentenced to life behind bars. West German prosecutors launched over seventy criminal investigations related to camp personnel.

The areas formerly occupied by Gusen I and II were redeveloped into a village, with most camp structures demolished. As of 2017, the Poschacher quarry adjacent to Gusen I remained operational; the Bergkristall tunnels are privately owned and closed to public access, as is the original entrance to Gusen I. The privately erected memorial at Gusen was acquired by governmental authorities in 1997; since then, it has been maintained and supplemented with a small museum established nearby in 2004. In the 2010s, municipalities surrounding Mauthausen and Gusen created a Bewusstseinsregion ("consciousness region") aimed at fostering preservation and restoration efforts of these historical sites. In 2013, archaeologists conducted rescue archaeology investigations at the former crematorium location within Gusen. Toward late 2019 and early 2020, Poland urged acquisition of the village of Gusen alongside enhanced initiatives to honor camp victims. In January 2020, Austria announced an allocation of EU€2 million (approximately USD$2.2 million) dedicated to these commemorative projects.

References

  1. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 90.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Waite 2009b, p. 921.
  3. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, p. 494.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Perz 2006a, p. 373.
  5. ↑ Mitchell 2017, p. 562.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Waite 2009b, p. 920.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pike 2003, p. 91.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Lewy 2017, p. 25.
  9. ↑ Pike 2003, pp. 91–92.
  10. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, p. 539.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Pike 2003, p. 92.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Pike 2003, p. 102.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Lechner & Dürr 2009, p. 905.
  14. ↑ Perz 2006a, pp. 372–373.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Pike 2003, p. 181.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Waite 2009b, pp. 920–921.
  17. ↑ Perz 2006a, p. 377.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Freund & Kranebitter 2016, p. 58.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Perz 2006a, p. 371.
  20. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, pp. 494–495.
  21. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, pp. 497–498.
  22. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, p. 530.
  23. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, p. 772.
  24. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, p. 45.
  25. ↑ Perz 2006a, p. 372.
  26. ↑ Pike 2003, pp. 65, 316.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Pike 2003, p. 94.
  28. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 65.
  29. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 155.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 Pike 2003, p. 93.
  31. ↑ Uziel 2011, p. 215.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Uziel 2011, p. 191.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Freund & Kranebitter 2016, p. 62.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Pike 2003, pp. 93–94.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Uziel 2011, pp. 190–191.
  36. ↑ Uziel 2011, p. 135.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Uziel 2011, pp. 134–135.
  38. ↑ Uziel 2011, p. 134.
  39. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 185.
  40. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 184.
  41. ↑ Blatman 2011, p. 214.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Blatman 2011, p. 212.
  43. ↑ Pike 2003, pp. 181–182.
  44. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 196.
  45. ↑ Stone 2015, p. 80.
  46. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 219.
  47. ↑ Wachsmann 2015, p. 1202.
  48. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 198.
  49. ↑ Pike 2003, pp. 218–219.
  50. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 223.
  51. ↑ Pike 2003, p. 239.
Sources
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Further reading

  • Maršálek, Hans. Konzentrationslager Gusen: ein Nebenlager des KZ Mauthausen. Vienna: Österreichische Lagergemeinschaft Mauthausen, 1987. (in German)
  • Orski, Marek. Gusen 2004: The Past and the Present. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Gdańskie, 2004. (in English)
  • Witzany-Durda, Siegi. "Die Konzentrationslager Gusen I, II, III." In Ge-Denken: Mauthausen/Gusen - Hartheim - St. Radegund, edited by Gottfried Bachl and Manfred Scheuer, 13–53. Linz: Edition Kirchen-Zeit-Geschichte, 2002. (in German)

External links

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