Harley-Davidson

Harley-Davidson, Inc.
	File:Harley-Davidson logo.svg The Harley-Davidson logo
Company type	Public
Industry	Motorcycle manufacturing
Founded	1 August 1903; 123 years ago in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States
Founder	William S. Harley, Arthur Davidson, Walter Davidson, William A. Davidson
Headquarters	Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States
Area served	Worldwide
Key people	Jochen Zeitz (CEO and chairman)
Products	Motorcycles, licensed merchandise (clothing, accessories, collectibles, digital products)
Website	www.harley-davidson.com

Harley-Davidson, Inc. (commonly known as H-D or simply Harley) is a prominent American motorcycle manufacturer based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Established in 1903 by William S. Harley, Arthur Davidson, Walter Davidson, and William A. Davidson, it stands as one of the two main American motorcycle firms to endure through the Great Depression, alongside its competitor Indian Motorcycles. The company has successfully weathered numerous ownership transitions, economic recessions, product development hurdles, and fierce international competition to build a robust global market position and cultivate strong brand loyalty.

Famous for its unique approach to motorcycle customization that sparked the chopper movement, Harley-Davidson traditionally specialized in heavyweight, air-cooled cruiser motorcycles with engines exceeding 700 cc. Over time, the brand broadened its lineup to include more contemporary models such as the VRSC series launched in 2002 and the mid-sized Street series introduced in 2014, aiming to capture a wider customer base.

Harley-Davidson’s manufacturing operations are located in York, Pennsylvania, Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin, Tomahawk, Wisconsin, as well as international plants in Manaus, Brazil, and Rayong, Thailand. The company distributes motorcycles worldwide and capitalizes on its brand by licensing merchandise like clothing, accessories, collectibles, and digital products, thereby diversifying its revenue sources and expanding its market reach.

At the helm is CEO and chairman Jochen Zeitz, who spearheads strategic initiatives to enhance Harley-Davidson’s competitive position and foster growth amid an evolving automotive landscape. In 2023, the firm reported revenues of US$5.84 billion and produced 162,771 motorcycles, demonstrating continued commitment to innovation and global expansion.

History

In 1901, a young William S. Harley designed a compact 116 cc engine intended for attachment to a pedal bicycle frame. Over the following two years, he collaborated with his childhood friend Arthur Davidson and Arthur’s brother Walter Davidson at a Milwaukee machine shop to develop their motorized bicycle. The first prototype was completed in 1903; it required pedaling assistance on inclines but served as an important experimental foundation.

Subsequently, they created a more powerful machine featuring a 405 cc engine housed within an advanced loop-frame design inspired by Joseph Merkel’s Milwaukee Merkel motorcycle. This marked a transition from motorized bicycles toward authentic motorcycles. Ole Evinrude, known for his work on outboard motors, contributed expertise to engine development.

The prototype was assembled in the Davidson family’s backyard shed and was operational by September 1904. It competed in a Milwaukee motorcycle race where it finished fourth. By January 1905, the company began advertising standalone engines for enthusiasts interested in building their own motorcycles and started limited production of complete bikes by April. Early sales included three motorcycles sold through dealer Carl H. Lang in Chicago.

In 1906, Harley-Davidson established its first manufacturing facility on Chestnut Street (later renamed Juneau Avenue), which remains the location of its corporate headquarters today. This initial factory was a wooden building measuring 40 by 60 feet and produced approximately 50 motorcycles during that year.

By 1907, William S. Harley had earned a mechanical engineering degree from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The company expanded its factory space and increased production to 150 motorcycles annually. It officially incorporated that September and began targeting police departments as key clients—a market segment it continues to serve extensively. William A. Davidson left his railroad position to join the company full-time.

Early production between 1905 and 1906 centered on single-cylinder engines with 440 cc displacement. In 1907, Harley-Davidson introduced a V-Twin engine prototype boasting an 880 cc capacity and roughly 7 horsepower—doubling the power output of single-cylinder models with top speeds approaching 60 mph. Production numbers climbed from 450 units in 1908 to over 1,100 in 1909.

By 1911, an upgraded V-Twin model incorporated mechanically operated intake valves for enhanced performance; after 1913, V-Twin engines became the dominant configuration in production. In 1912, the company patented the "Ful-Floteing Seat," an adjustable suspension system designed to improve rider comfort—a feature that remained in use until 1958.

By 1913, Harley-Davidson replaced its original factory with a five-story brick facility spanning two blocks along Juneau Avenue and 38th Street. Despite competition from Indian Motorcycles, Harley-Davidson led motorcycle racing events following 1914 and expanded production volumes beyond 16,000 units that year.

World War I

When the United States joined World War I in 1917, the military's need for motorcycles increased dramatically. Harley-Davidson, which had already supplied motorcycles during the Pancho Villa Expedition, became a primary provider, delivering more than 20,000 units to the U.S. armed forces throughout the conflict. This period marked a substantial growth in Harley-Davidson's involvement with military contracts, building on the earlier use of motorcycles such as the British Model H by various armies.

In the same year, Harley-Davidson expanded its product line by introducing bicycles to attract a wider domestic audience. The collection featured traditional diamond-frame models for men, a step-through "Ladies Standard," and a youth-oriented "Boy Scout" design. However, due to underwhelming sales and the discontinuation of bicycle production by their Dayton, Ohio partner Davis Machine Company in 1921, Harley-Davidson ceased bicycle manufacturing by 1923. This initiative represented a strategic diversification attempt during wartime but ultimately led the company to concentrate on its primary motorcycle business.

1920s

By 1920, Harley-Davidson had become the largest motorcycle manufacturer worldwide, with an output of 28,189 units and dealerships spanning 67 countries. In 1921, Otto Walker became the first motorcyclist to surpass an average speed of on a Harley-Davidson machine.

Throughout the 1920s, Harley-Davidson introduced several important innovations, such as a new 74 cubic inch (1,212.6 cc) V-Twin engine in 1921 and the iconic "teardrop" fuel tank design in 1925. The addition of a front brake came in 1928 but was initially limited to J/JD models. Toward the end of 1929, the company unveiled the 45-cubic-inch (737 cc) flathead V-Twin "D" model to rival competitors like the Indian 101 Scout and Excelsior Super X. This model earned the nickname "three cylinder Harley" due to its upright generator layout. That year also saw Vivian Bales set a record by riding 5,000 miles across both the U.S. and Canada on a D-model motorcycle.

These advancements helped solidify Harley-Davidson’s market dominance and competitive position during a pivotal phase of expansion.

Great Depression

The Great Depression severely disrupted Harley-Davidson’s operations, causing sales to drop sharply from 21,000 units in 1929 to just 3,703 in 1933. In response, the company introduced a new lineup in 1934 featuring flathead engines combined with Art Deco design elements. To broaden its product range, Harley-Davidson also developed industrial powerplants derived from motorcycle engines and created the three-wheeled Servi-Car delivery vehicle, which remained in production until 1973.

During the mid-1930s, Alfred Rich Child established manufacturing for the VL model in Japan. Nevertheless, this partnership ended in 1936 when Sankyo Seiyaku Corporation continued production independently under the Rikuo brand.

By 1935, Harley-Davidson incorporated an flathead engine into its offerings while phasing out single-cylinder motorcycles. The introduction of the 61E and 61EL models equipped with "Knucklehead" OHV engines occurred in 1936. Initial issues with the valvetrain prompted a mid-year redesign and retrofitting of existing engines.

By 1937, all flathead engines featured dry-sump oil recirculation systems similar to those employed in Knucklehead OHV engines. Model designations were updated: V and VL became U and UL; VH and VLH changed to UH and ULH; and R was renamed W.

In 1941, Harley-Davidson released the 74-cubic-inch "Knucklehead" as F and FL models. Production of flathead UH and ULH models ended after that year, while U and UL flatheads with 74-cubic-inch displacement continued manufacturing until 1948.

World War II

Harley-Davidson was one of only two American motorcycle companies to endure the Great Depression—the other being Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Company—and during World War II, it produced a substantial quantity of motorcycles for the US military. After the conflict, the company returned to civilian manufacturing, concentrating on popular large V-twin models favored by racers and individual consumers.

Prior to the war, Harley-Davidson supplied a military-adapted version of its WL series, known as the WLA, to the Army. With the onset of World War II, production shifted primarily toward military needs, resulting in approximately 90,000 motorcycles—mostly WLAs and Canadian WLCs—many of which were provided to Allied forces. Harley-Davidson received two Army-Navy "E" Awards recognizing outstanding production performance in 1943 and again in 1945.

Through the Lend-Lease agreement, over 30,000 motorcycles were delivered to the Soviet Union. Although WLA manufacturing stopped after World War II, it resumed between 1949 and 1952 to support demands during the Korean War.

At the request of the U.S. Army, Harley-Davidson engineered the shaft-driven 750 cc 1942–43 Harley-Davidson XA, heavily inspired by BMW's R71 engine and drivetrain design. The XA's flat-twin engine provided enhanced cooling efficiency—operating around 100 °F cooler than traditional V-twins. Despite these advantages, with Jeeps serving as the Army’s primary general-purpose vehicle and existing WLA production fulfilling limited military requirements, only about 1,000 XA units were built, preventing mass production.

Small: Hummer, Sportcycle and Aermacchi

As part of war reparations, Harley-Davidson obtained rights to the German DKW RT 125 design and produced adapted versions from 1948 through 1966. This family of motorcycles included models such as the Hummer (1955–1959). The same design was utilized by the British BSA for their BSA Bantam.

In 1960, Harley-Davidson merged its Model 165 and Hummer lines into a new model called the Super-10, introduced the Topper scooter, and purchased a half interest in Italian manufacturer Aermacchi's motorcycle division. Starting in 1961, Aermacchi’s 250 cc single-cylinder motorcycles were imported and sold under Harley-Davidson branding as the Sprint. The Sprint’s engine capacity was increased to 350 cc in 1969 and remained in production until it was discontinued in 1974.

After ending production of the Pacer and Scat models in 1965, Harley-Davidson introduced the Bobcat as its final American-made two-stroke motorcycle, which was manufactured solely in 1966. Following this, lightweight two-stroke models were replaced by Italian-built Aermacchi two-stroke motorcycles: including the M-65 (featuring a semi-step-through frame), M-65S (with a larger fuel tank), and Rapido (equipped with a 125 cc engine). In 1974, the two-stroke SS-250 succeeded the four-stroke Sprint, completing Harley’s shift to two-stroke engines within this segment.

Harley-Davidson gained full ownership of Aermacchi’s motorcycle operations in 1974 but maintained control only until selling the facility to Cagiva in 1978. This decision reflected Harley's strategic focus on refining its core product offerings and aligning with evolving market priorities.

Damaged Reputation

In 1952, Harley-Davidson sought a 40% tariff on imported motorcycles by petitioning the U.S. Tariff Commission, which resulted in allegations of monopolistic practices against the company.

The acquisition of Harley-Davidson by American Machine and Foundry (AMF) in 1969 led to production rationalization and workforce reductions. These changes triggered labor unrest and a decline in motorcycle quality. Simultaneously, Japanese manufacturers such as Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, and Yamaha revolutionized the North American market with their innovative Universal Japanese Motorcycle designs. Harley-Davidson's motorcycles were comparatively expensive and lagged behind in quality and performance, causing sales to drop sharply and pushing the company close to insolvency. The brand's image was tarnished, earning disparaging nicknames like "Hardly Ableson" and "Hardly Driveable," while the once-positive "Hog" nickname took on unfavorable implications.

In 1977, after the success of the Liberty Edition celebrating America's bicentennial, Harley-Davidson introduced the controversial Confederate Edition—a standard model adorned with Confederate-themed paintwork and details—which attracted criticism and negatively affected the brand's reputation.

Revitalization and Restructuring

In 1981, AMF divested Harley-Davidson to a group of 13 investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson for $80 million. The new leadership focused on improving product quality, incorporating advanced technologies, and adopting just-in-time inventory systems. These operational enhancements were complemented by securing tariff protections against Japanese competitors from the Reagan administration in 1983, providing a buffer period to implement their recovery strategy.

A central aspect of this revival involved updating stagnant designs by highlighting Harley's distinctive "retro" character instead of copying Japanese models. Outsourcing components like brakes and electrical systems enhanced both quality and technical performance, gradually rebuilding customer trust.

Harley-Davidson licensed the "Sub Shock" cantilever-swingarm rear suspension from engineer Bill Davis, evolving it into the Softail line introduced in 1984 with the FXST Softail model.

To broaden its market beyond an aging baby boomer demographic, Harley-Davidson acquired luxury motorhome manufacturer Holiday Rambler in 1986, later selling it off to Monaco Coach Corporation in 1996.

The "Sturgis" model, featuring a dual belt-drive system, was originally produced between 1980 and 1983 and later revived as a commemorative edition in 1991.

Fat Boy, Dyna Models, and Museum Establishment

By 1990, the launch of the Harley-Davidson Fat Boy reestablished the company's dominance in the heavyweight motorcycle segment (engines over 750 cc). Contrary to popular belief, the "Fat Boy" name refers to its broader frame design rather than any connection to atomic bombs.

Between 1993 and 1994, Harley-Davidson phased out FXR models in favor of the Dyna (FXD), which became the only rubber-mounted FX Big Twin frame by 1994. The FXR was briefly reintroduced from 1999 to 2000 for limited editions including FXR², FXR³, and FXR⁴.

Harley-Davidson celebrated its centennial on September 1, 2003, with a large-scale event featuring performances by Elton John, The Doobie Brothers, Kid Rock, and Tim McGraw.

Groundbreaking for the $75 million, 130,000-square-foot Harley-Davidson Museum took place in June 2006 in Milwaukee’s Menomonee Valley. Opening its doors in 2008, the museum exhibits historic motorcycles and archives alongside a restaurant, café, and event spaces—strengthening brand legacy and customer connection.

Overseas operations

Australia hosts the longest-running Harley-Davidson dealership outside the United States, having been established in 1918. Harley-Davidson motorcycles first entered the Japanese market in 1912, and between 1929 and 1958, Rikuo Motorcycle manufactured Harley-Davidson models under license there, utilizing the company's original tooling and branding.

In 1998, Harley-Davidson inaugurated its inaugural manufacturing facility beyond US borders in Manaus, Brazil. This strategic move capitalized on the region's free economic zone to better serve markets in the southern hemisphere.

Harley-Davidson formed its Indian subsidiary in Gurgaon, near Delhi, in 2011, building a dealer network and commencing sales a year earlier in 2010. Nevertheless, due to insufficient market demand and poor sales performance, the company withdrew from India in September 2020. This exit involved $75 million in restructuring expenses, workforce reductions of 70 employees, and the closure of its manufacturing plant in Bawal.

Buell Motorcycle Company

The partnership between Harley-Davidson and sportbike manufacturer Buell Motorcycle Company began in 1987 when Harley-Davidson supplied Buell with surplus XR1000 engines. By 1993, Harley-Davidson had acquired a 49% ownership stake in Buell, which increased to 98% by 1998, culminating in full ownership by 2003.

Buell aimed at beginner motorcyclists with the introduction of the affordable and low-maintenance single-cylinder Buell Blast model in 2000, which remained in production until 2009. The Blast was also used as the standard training motorcycle for Harley-Davidson’s Rider's Edge New Rider Course until 2014. This program educated more than 350,000 new riders, contributing to Harley-Davidson’s growth by attracting entry-level customers.

On October 15, 2009, Harley-Davidson announced it would immediately cease production of the Buell line to concentrate resources on its primary brand. The company declined offers to sell Buell. Subsequently, founder Erik Buell established Erik Buell Racing to continue developing high-performance motorcycles such as the 1125RR, preserving Buell’s involvement in racing and niche markets.

Claims of stock price manipulation

During periods of strong demand in the late 1990s and early 2000s, Harley-Davidson significantly expanded its dealership network. Even though dealers experienced waiting lists up to a year for sought-after models, the company recognized sales at the point of delivery to dealers rather than actual consumer purchases. This practice enabled potential sales inflation through channel stuffing, where dealers were pressured into accepting surplus inventory. After demand declined following the distinctive 2003 model year, Harley-Davidson’s stock price dropped sharply—from over $60 to below $40 by April 2004. Retiring CEO Jeffrey Bleustein earned $42 million from stock options shortly before this downturn. The company faced several class action lawsuits accusing management of fraudulent practices. By January 2007, share prices had recovered to $70.

Problems with Police Touring models

Beginning around 2000, multiple police departments reported instability issues at high speeds with Harley-Davidson Touring motorcycles. A tragic case involved a Raleigh, North Carolina officer who died in a crash during a high-speed wobble incident in 2002. In 2006, testing conducted by the California Highway Patrol confirmed wobble and weave instability problems with Police Touring models. These concerns adversely affected Harley-Davidson’s reputation within law enforcement circles.

2007 labor strike

On February 2, 2007, around 2,700 workers at Harley-Davidson Inc.'s largest manufacturing site in York, Pennsylvania initiated a strike following unsuccessful negotiations over wages and healthcare benefits. During this labor action, the company ceased contributing to the health care expenses of those participating in the strike.

The day prior to the strike, after the union declined the proposed contract and authorized the work stoppage, Harley-Davidson halted all production at the York plant, which employs more than 3,200 individuals, including both unionized and non-union personnel.

On February 16, 2007, Harley-Davidson reached a labor agreement with union representatives, bringing an end to the two-week strike. This interruption affected production nationwide and resulted in layoffs of 440 employees in Wisconsin, as well as workforce reductions among several supplier firms.

MV Agusta Group acquisition and divestiture

On July 11, 2008, Harley-Davidson announced a definitive deal to acquire the MV Agusta Group for $109 million (approximately €70 million). The acquisition included two motorcycle brands: the premium-performance MV Agusta and the lighter Cagiva lines. The transaction was finalized on August 8, marking an expansion of Harley-Davidson’s footprint in Europe.

Nonetheless, on October 15, 2009, Harley-Davidson declared its plan to divest MV Agusta. In early August 2010, the Italian motorcycle manufacturer was sold back to Claudio Castiglioni—previous owner and chairman since the 2008 purchase—for a nominal sum of €3. As part of this arrangement, Harley-Davidson provided $26 million in capital to support MV Agusta’s restructuring efforts under Castiglioni’s leadership.

Impact of the 2008 financial crisis

The 2008 financial crisis along with the 2008–2010 automotive industry crisis had a profound effect on the motorcycle sector. According to Interbrand, Harley-Davidson's brand valuation declined by 43% to $4.34 billion in 2009, correlating with a 66% drop in profits over two quarters during the previous year. On April 29, 2010, Harley-Davidson announced plans to reduce manufacturing expenses by $54 million, including consideration of alternative U.S.-based facilities. This followed extensive restructuring efforts beginning in early 2009 that included factory closures, shutting down a distribution center, and cutting nearly one-quarter of its workforce (approximately 3,500 jobs). Despite these challenges, on September 14, 2010, the company confirmed it would maintain its headquarters in Wisconsin.

Motorcycle engines

Harley-Davidson's hallmark engines feature 45° V-twin configurations with a single-pin crankshaft connecting both pistons. This patented engineering delivers a compact design optimized for high torque while producing distinctive uneven firing intervals that generate the brand’s signature "potato-potato" exhaust sound.

The engine employs a dual-fire ignition system without a distributor; one set of points fires both spark plugs simultaneously—one during compression and another during exhaust—resulting in its characteristic deep exhaust tone. The firing pattern consists of a 315° interval between cylinders followed by a 405° pause before repeating, which defines its unique acoustic signature.

Over time, Harley-Davidson utilized various ignition technologies: points and condenser systems up to 1978; magneto ignition on certain Sportster models from 1958 to 1969; early electronic ignition between 1978 and 1979; and transistorized control modules starting in 1980.

Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) was introduced in 1995 on the Electra Glide’s 30th anniversary edition and became standard equipment across all models by 2007, improving performance and meeting emissions requirements.

In 1991, Harley-Davidson collaborated with industry leaders such as Yamaha and Sennheiser within the Sound Quality Working Group to investigate psychological acoustics. Research conducted at Orfield Labs aimed to lower noise emissions for compliance with EU regulations while preserving the iconic "Harley Sound," influencing models designed to meet EU standards from 1998 onward.

On February 1, 1994, Harley-Davidson applied for trademark protection of its engine’s exhaust sound. This effort faced opposition from competitors producing similar cruiser-style V-twin noises. After legal disputes, Harley-Davidson withdrew its trademark application in June 2000 but continues to emphasize its distinctive engine sound as a vital competitive differentiator and core element of its brand identity.

Large V-twins

F-head (JD, pocket valve, IOE), produced from 1914 to 1929 in 1,000 cc and from 1922 to 1929 in 1,200 cc variants
Flathead, manufactured between 1930 and 1949 at 1,200 cc, and from 1935 to 1941 at 1,300 cc
Knucklehead, available from 1936 through 1947 in a 61 cu in (1,000 cc) version, and from 1941 to 1947 in a 74 cu in (1,200 cc) size
Panhead, produced between 1948 and 1965 with options of 61 cu in (1,000 cc) and 74 cu in (1,200 cc)
Shovelhead, built from 1966 until 1984, initially at 74 cu in (1,200 cc) with an increase to 80 cu in (1,338 cc) starting late in 1978
Evolution ("Evo" or "Blockhead"), manufactured from 1984 to 1999 with a displacement of 82 cu in (1,340 cc)
Twin Cam ("Fathead"), spanning production from 1999 to 2017:
- Twin Cam 88: produced between 1999 and 2006, featuring an 88 cu in (1,450 cc) capacity
- Twin Cam 88B (counterbalanced): available from 2000 to 2006
- Twin Cam 95: introduced with early C.V.O. models starting in 2000
- Twin Cam 96: launched in 2007 and ongoing
- Twin Cam 103: produced during periods of 2003–2006 and again in 2009; became standard on numerous Touring models between 2011 and 2014
- Twin Cam 110: utilized from 2007 to 2017 primarily in C.V.O. and select Softail motorcycles
Milwaukee-Eight:
- Standard displacement of 1746 cc applied to Touring models since 2017 and Softail models starting in 2018
- Twin-cooled versions ranging from 1746 cc up to 1923 cc: optional on touring and trike models from 2017 onward; standard equipment on CVO models through the year 2018

This progression of engine designs highlights Harley-Davidson’s commitment to advancing technology and boosting performance to sustain its competitive edge within the motorcycle market.

Small V-twins

D Model: produced between 1929 and 1931 with a displacement of 750 cc
R Model: manufactured from 1932 through 1936, also at 750 cc
Flathead series at 750 cc:
- W Model solo motorcycle built between 1937 and 1952
- G Model Servi-Car three-wheeler produced from 1932 until 1973
K Model: made during the years of 1952–1953 with a capacity of 750 cc
KH Model: manufactured between the years of 1954 and 1956 at a displacement of 900 cc
Ironhead engine: produced from 1957 to1971 at an initial size of 883 cc; expanded to a full liter (1,000 cc) from1972 through1985
Evolution engine introduced since1986, available in displacements of883 cc,1100 cc, and1200 cc

Revolution engine

The Revolution powerplant was developed jointly with Porsche for street motorcycles, deriving its design from Harley-Davidson's VR-1000 Superbike project. It is a liquid-cooled, counterbalanced V-twin set at a60° angle featuring dual overhead cams and displacing69 cubic inches (1,130 cc). This engine delivers115 horsepower at8,250 rpm with a redline of9,000 rpm. Debuting on the VRSC (V-Rod) lineup for the2002 model year after its introduction in2001, it represented a pivotal shift within Harley-Davidson’s product strategy.

A high-output Screamin' Eagle variant with a larger displacement of1,250 cc was offered between2005 and2007 before becoming standard across the VRSC range by2008. Harley-Davidson claimed123 horsepower at the crank for the2008 VRSCAW model. The VRXSE Destroyer drag racing motorcycle features a stroked Screamin' Eagle Revolution Engine enlarged to79 cubic inches (1,300 cc), generating over165 horsepower along with97 lb-ft of torque.

Smaller Revolution variants branded as Revolution X engines—sized at750 cc and500 cc—power the Street series of lightweight cruisers. These versions incorporate design alterations such as single overhead cams and vertically split crankcases tailored for urban environments and aimed at broadening Harley-Davidson’s global product lineup.

Düsseldorf-Test

An intense endurance evaluation of the Revolution engine took place at Harley-Davidson’s Milwaukee facility simulating the German Autobahn route connecting Porsche's Weissach research center with Düsseldorf. Initial test units failed multiple times until one succeeded after completing a continuous500-hour run without interruption. This achievement set the standard required for production approval and was showcased on the Discovery Channel documentary Harley-Davidson: Birth of the V-Rod aired on October14,2001.

Single-cylinder engines

IOE singles

The earliest Harley-Davidson motorcycles were equipped with single-cylinder IOE engines utilizing vacuum-actuated inlet valves, inspired by the DeDion-Bouton configuration. Production of these singles continued until 1913, at which point pushrod and rocker arm mechanisms were introduced to operate overhead inlet valves—a design also implemented on V-twin engines starting in 1911. Manufacturing of single-cylinder engines concluded in 1918.

Flathead and OHV singles

In 1925, single-cylinder engines made a comeback as models for the 1926 lineup, available in both flathead and overhead valve (OHV) designs until 1930, after which only flathead versions remained. The flathead variants were identified as Model A (magneto ignition only) and Model B (battery and coil ignition), while the OHV models were labeled Model AA and Model BA; a racing-specific magneto-only version was known as Model S. Production of these single-cylinder engines ceased in 1934.

Two-stroke singles

Model families

Harley-Davidson’s contemporary motorcycles are categorized into seven distinct model families: Touring, Softail, Dyna, Sportster, Vrod, Street, and LiveWire. These groups are distinguished by differences in frame architecture, engine types, suspension systems, and principal characteristics.

Touring

Touring motorcycles are powered by Big-Twin engines and feature large telescopic front forks, all identified by FL prefixes (for example, FLHR Road King and FLTR Road Glide). Commonly referred to as "dressers" or "baggers," this segment includes models such as Road King, Road Glide, Electra Glide, and Street Glide across various configurations.

Road King models evoke a classic cruiser aesthetic with substantial windshields reminiscent of mid-20th-century big-twin motorcycles. Electra Glide variants incorporate full front fairings, often showcasing the signature "Batwing" fork-mounted design. Road Glide models differ by employing a frame-mounted "Sharknose" fairing equipped with dual headlights. Touring motorcycles are notable for their sizable saddlebags, rear coil-over air suspension systems, and exclusive full fairings outfitted with integrated radios and CB radios.

The touring frame was first introduced in 1980 alongside the Shovelhead engine and underwent multiple revisions through 2009 aimed at enhancing vibration damping and rider comfort. Significant updates occurred in 1993 and 1997 to optimize battery placement and adjust seat height. In 2007, Harley-Davidson launched the 96-cubic-inch Twin Cam engine paired with a six-speed transmission to boost highway riding capabilities.

The FLHX Street Glide joined the lineup in 2006 as an upscale touring model, designed under the guidance of founder Willie G. Davidson. By 2008, factory options for all touring models expanded to include anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and cruise control; fuel tank capacity increased to six gallons, along with the introduction of throttle-by-wire technology.

The 2009 model year marked a comprehensive overhaul of touring motorcycles featuring a new frame and swingarm design, updated engine mounts, larger front wheels (17 inches except for FLHRC), and a 2–1–2 exhaust configuration. These refinements enhanced payload capacity, handling dynamics, engine smoothness, fuel range, and reduced heat exposure for riders. That year also saw the debut of the FLHTCUTG Tri-Glide Ultra Classic three-wheeler with a specialized frame and exclusive 103-cubic-inch engine—the first Harley trike since 1973.

In 2014, Harley-Davidson introduced "Project Rushmore," a redesign initiative targeting select touring models to drive business growth through innovation. Improvements included the new 103CI High Output engine; one-handed easy-open saddlebags; the Boom! Box Infotainment system featuring touchscreen displays (available in 4.3- or 6.5-inch sizes), Bluetooth connectivity for media streaming and phone integration, GPS navigation, SiriusXM radio compatibility, Text-to-Speech technology, USB charging ports; Reflex Linked Brake ABS; refreshed styling; LED or halogen lighting options; and enhanced passenger amenities—solidifying Harley's position in the touring motorcycle segment.

Softail

Harley-Davidson's Softail motorcycles highlight the brand's heritage by incorporating rear suspension concealed beneath the transmission, creating the appearance of the classic "hardtail" choppers from the 1960s and 1970s. Certain Softail variants showcase "Heritage" aesthetics inspired by vintage designs, including factory-installed "Springer" front forks.

Designation

Softail bikes are equipped with the big-twin engine (F) paired with the Softail frame (ST).

Models featuring 21-inch (530 mm) front wheels carry the FX prefix, such as FXSTB (Night Train), FXSTD (Deuce), and FXSTS (Springer).
Models with 16-inch (410 mm) front wheels begin with FL, examples include FLSTF (Fat Boy), FLSTC (Heritage Softail Classic), FLSTN (Softail Deluxe), and FLS (Softail Slim).
Springer fork variants fitted with 21-inch wheels start with FXSTS, like FXSTS (Springer Softail) and FXSTSB (Bad Boy).
Springer fork models equipped with 16-inch wheels use the FLSTS prefix, for instance FLSTSC (Springer Classic) and FLSTSB (Cross Bones).

Dyna

Launched in 1991, Dyna-frame motorcycles feature big-twin powerplants combined with traditional styling elements. They are characterized by coil-over rear suspension and larger engines compared to Sportster models. The transmission also serves as the engine’s oil reservoir.

Prior to 2006, Dynas were equipped with narrow 39mm front forks and footpegs indicated by an "X" in their model codes. Prominent models included the Super Glide (FXD), Super Glide Custom (FXDC), Street Bob (FXDB), and Low Rider (FXDL). The Wide Glide (FXDWG) stood out with thicker 41mm forks mounted on wider triple-trees for a more robust appearance. In 2008, the Fat Bob (FXDF) introduced aggressive styling featuring a 2–1–2 exhaust system, dual headlights, a 180 mm rear tire, and, for the first time on a Dyna, a 130 mm front tire. The 2012 Switchback (FLD) departed from tradition by adding floorboards, hard saddlebags, a touring windshield, headlight nacelle, and a wide front tire reminiscent of earlier big-twin FL models.

Engine sizes increased over time from 88 cubic inches (1,440 cc) before 2006 to 96 cubic inches (1,570 cc) in 2007 and then to 103 cubic inches (1,690 cc) by 2012. All Dyna motorcycles utilize rubber-mounted engines to minimize vibration. Harley-Davidson discontinued the Dyna lineup after the 2017 model year, merging many models into an updated Softail frame design.

Designation

Dyna motorcycles combine the big-twin engine code (F), footpeg designation as (X) except for the 2012-2016 FLD Switchback which features floorboards indicated by (L), and the Dyna frame code (D). Most Dyna model codes thus begin with FXD, such as FXDWG (Wide Glide) and FXDL (Low Rider).

Sportster

The Sportster series was introduced in 1957 with racing in mind and gained significant popularity in dirt track and flat-track racing throughout the 1960s and 1970s. These motorcycles are smaller and lighter than other Harley models. Contemporary Sportsters employ Evolution engines of either 883 cc or 1,200 cc displacement while retaining design elements closely linked to their racing heritage.

Up until 2003, Sportster engines were rigidly mounted to the frame. The redesign in 2004 introduced rubber-mounted engines to reduce vibration and enhance rider comfort at the expense of added weight and a decreased lean angle.

In celebration of its 50th anniversary in 2007, Harley-Davidson released a limited XL50 edition with only 2,000 units worldwide. That same year saw the debut of electronic fuel injection and the Nightster model. The Iron 883 was introduced in 2009 as part of the Dark Custom range.

The XR1200 made its first appearance in 2008 targeting Europe, Africa, and Middle Eastern markets. It featured a tuned Evolution engine delivering 91 bhp, four-piston dual front disc brakes, and an aluminum swingarm. Positive reviews prompted demand for a U.S. release in 2009 after resolving naming rights issues with a Harley custom shop. Production ceased following the 2013 model year.

In 2021, Harley-Davidson unveiled the Sportster S equipped with a new engine producing 121 hp along with advanced technologies such as cornering ABS and lean-sensitive traction control—marking the first all-new Sportster powerplant since its inception in 1957. The bike’s curb weight is approximately 228 kg.

Designation

Street-oriented Sportsters generally carry the XL prefix. Smaller engine variants are designated XL883 while larger displacements began as XL1100 before transitioning to XL1200. Additional letters denote specific versions within each range—for example XL883C for Sportster Custom or XL1200S for the now-discontinued Sportster Sport.

VRSC

Manufactured between 2001 and 2017, the VRSC lineup represented a pivotal evolution for Harley-Davidson, aimed at competing within the muscle bike and power cruiser segments traditionally led by Japanese and American brands. The "V-Rod" distinguished itself by incorporating the Revolution engine—Harley’s inaugural powerplant featuring overhead camshafts and liquid cooling—delivering a notable boost in performance. Its signature design elements included a 60-degree V-Twin engine configuration, a radiator system, and a hydroformed frame, all underscoring advancements in both engineering and aesthetics. Additionally, the VRSC chassis served as the foundation for factory-supported drag racing motorcycles.

In 2008, Harley-Davidson upgraded the VRSC series by introducing factory-fitted anti-lock braking systems and expanding engine displacement from 1130cc to 1250cc—a specification previously reserved for Screamin' Eagle variants—while also making a slipper clutch standard equipment.

Prominent models within the VRSC range comprise:

VRSCA: V-Rod (2002–2006)
VRSCAW: V-Rod Wide (2007–2010)
VRSCB: V-Rod (2004–2005)
VRSCD: Night Rod (2006–2008)
VRSCDX: Night Rod Special (2007–2014)
VRSCSE/SE2: Screamin' Eagle CVO V-Rod (2005–2006)
VRSCR: Street Rod (2006–2007)
VRSCX: Screamin' Eagle Tribute V-Rod (2007)
VRSCF: V-Rod Muscle (2009–2014)

Model nomenclature derives from the Revolution engine designation (VR) combined with Street Custom (SC), with appended letters identifying particular variants or limited editions.

VRXSE

The VRXSE V-Rod Destroyer stands as Harley-Davidson’s factory drag racing motorcycle, engineered to achieve quarter-mile runs in under ten seconds. Powered by a stroked 1,300cc Screamin' Eagle Revolution engine equipped with upgraded crankshaft and throttle bodies, it showcases Harley’s motorsport engineering prowess. Unlike street-legal VRSC motorcycles, the "X" in its model code signifies its non-street-legal status, while "SE" denotes its CVO Special Edition classification.

Street

Introduced as Harley-Davidson’s first new platform in over a decade, the Street series is designed to appeal to younger riders desiring a lightweight and cost-effective motorcycle. The Street 750 made its debut at the 2014 Indian Auto Expo, featuring a relatively light curb weight of 218 kg and ground clearance of 144 mm—attributes that position it among Harley’s most accessible motorcycles worldwide.

Equipped with the Revolution X engine—a liquid-cooled 60° V-twin displacing 749cc and generating 65 Nm of torque at 4,000 rpm—the Street 750 pairs this powertrain with a six-speed gearbox optimized for urban commuting. The lineup also includes the smaller-displacement Street 500 model.

Production for North American markets is carried out at Harley-Davidson’s Kansas City facility, while manufacturing for international markets takes place in Bawal, India. This dual production approach supports Harley’s strategy to broaden its global footprint.

LiveWire

Harley-Davidson’s LiveWire, launched in 2019, represents the company’s inaugural electric motorcycle offering. Its high-voltage battery provides an estimated minimum urban range of 98 miles (158 km), targeting a distinct customer base separate from traditional Harley riders accustomed to V-twin engines.

In March 2020, a LiveWire set an electric motorcycle endurance record by covering 1,723 km (1,079 miles) within a single 24-hour period. The motorcycle supports Level 1 charging via standard electrical outlets as well as Level 3 DC Fast Charging technology, which replenishes most of the battery capacity in approximately 40 minutes. Swiss rider Michel von Tell utilized Level 3 charging during this record-setting event.

In December 2021, Harley-Davidson announced intentions to spin off LiveWire as an independent entity through a SPAC merger valued at approximately $1.77 billion. This separation was planned for the first half of 2022, reflecting a strategic initiative to accelerate growth within the electric motorcycle market segment.

Custom Vehicle Operations

Custom Vehicle Operations (CVO) represents Harley-Davidson’s division dedicated to crafting exclusive, limited-run custom versions of their standard motorcycles. Since its inception in 1999, CVO has annually transformed between two and five base models by incorporating larger displacement engines, enhanced performance features, unique paint schemes, extensive chrome detailing, upgraded audio systems, and advanced electronic components. This initiative specifically targets the upscale factory custom segment. The Ultra Classic Electra Glide has been a consistent feature since 2006, while the Road King appeared multiple times during the 2000s. Additionally, CVO customizations extend to other model families including Dyna, Softail, and VRSC.

Environmental record

In 2005, Harley-Davidson underwent emissions testing by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and subsequently provided an environmental warranty ensuring adherence to EPA regulations. Demonstrating environmental stewardship, the company was the first to voluntarily participate in the One Clean-Up Program focused on soil and groundwater remediation at the former York Naval Ordnance Plant. EPA Director Paul Gotthold commended Harley-Davidson for its advancements in contamination cleanup efforts and regulatory compliance.

Harley-Davidson also acquired Castalloy, an Australian firm specializing in cast motorcycle wheels and hubs, with government-supported protections addressing environmental liabilities.

In August 2016, Harley-Davidson reached a $12 million settlement with the EPA regarding aftermarket "super tuners" that increased emissions by altering emission control systems. As part of the agreement, Harley-Davidson committed to repurchasing non-compliant tuners and investing $3 million towards initiatives aimed at reducing air pollution.

Brand culture

A study conducted by Harley-Davidson in 1987 revealed that half of its riders were younger than 35; however, by 2006, only 15% fell below this age threshold. The median age of riders rose from 46.7 years in 2005 to 48 by 2008. Over the same period, rider household income grew substantially—from $38,000 in 1987 to $83,000 by 1997.

Worldwide, numerous Harley-Davidson Clubs exist, with the earliest established in Prague in 1928. The brand enjoys a dedicated community of enthusiasts; licensing the Harley-Davidson logo generated close to 5% of net revenues ($41 million in 2004). Furthermore, Harley-Davidson supplies motorcycles to many police departments across the United States.

From its early days, Harley-Davidson positioned its motorcycles as dignified and sophisticated machines aimed at conservative buyers. Initial marketing highlighted quiet operation—branding the 1906 Model 7D as "The Silent Gray Fellow." During the 1960s, to differentiate itself from Honda’s polished image, Harley embraced a tougher, working-class persona associated with rebellion. The introduction of the 1971 FX Super Glide signaled a move toward chopper styling and countercultural appeal, fostering a "bad boy" biker identity linked to motorcycle clubs and even outlaw groups.

This transformation illustrates Harley-Davidson’s strategic approach to sustaining market relevance by aligning product design and branding with shifting consumer identities and lifestyle values.

Origin of "Hog" nickname

Beginning in 1920, a group of farm boys including Ray Weishaar earned the nickname "hog boys" after consistently winning races while accompanied by a live hog mascot. Their tradition involved parading the hog on their Harley during victory laps. In 1983, Harley-Davidson leveraged this legacy by founding the Harley Owners Group (HOG). Although the company attempted to trademark "hog," a court ruled in 1999 that it had become a generic term for large motorcycles. On August 15, 2006, Harley-Davidson reinforced this iconic association by changing its NYSE ticker symbol from HDI to HOG.

Bobbers

The Harley-Davidson FL "big twin" motorcycles traditionally came equipped with substantial steel fenders and chrome detailing. Following World War II, riders aiming to enhance performance often opted to shorten or remove these components to decrease overall weight, giving rise to the "bobber" or "chopper" styles. These minimalist motorcycles gained popularity among groups such as the Hells Angels, who derogatorily referred to the standard FL models as "garbage wagons."

Harley Owners Group

Established in 1983, the Harley Owners Group (HOG) was created by Harley-Davidson to capitalize on customer allegiance and cultivate a lifestyle centered around its brand. HOG has generated additional income through branded merchandise sales, boasting a membership exceeding one million. This model of factory-supported community marketing has since been emulated by various motorcycle and consumer brands.

Members of HOG generally spend approximately 30% more on clothing and events compared to other Harley owners, thereby strengthening the company’s revenue through supplementary sales. In 1991, HOG expanded into Europe with its inaugural rally held in Cheltenham, England. Currently, HOG stands as the largest factory-backed motorcycle club worldwide, with over one million members and more than 1,400 chapters across the globe.

Benefits for members include organized group rides, exclusive product offerings and discounts, insurance options, and access to the Hog Tales newsletter. A complimentary one-year full membership accompanies every new Harley-Davidson purchase, fostering customer loyalty and retention.

In 2008, HOG celebrated its 25th anniversary alongside Harley-Davidson’s 105th year in Milwaukee. The organization continues to fuel business expansion through events like the Southern HOG Rally in India, which draws hundreds of riders from various chapters and reinforces Harley-Davidson’s presence in international markets.

Factory tours and museum

Harley-Davidson offers factory tours at four production facilities and operates the Harley-Davidson Museum in Milwaukee, which opened in 2008. The museum highlights the company’s history, culture, products, and archives, serving as a testament to its brand legacy.

York, Pennsylvania – Vehicle Operations: Manufactures Touring, Softail, and custom motorcycles.
Tomahawk, Wisconsin – Tomahawk Operations: Produces sidecars, saddlebags, windshields, and accessories.
Kansas City, Missouri – Vehicle and Powertrain Operations: Builds Sportster, VRSC, and other models.
Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin – Pilgrim Road Powertrain Operations: Provides two distinct tour experiences.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin – Harley-Davidson Museum: Hosts exhibits on company culture and history alongside a restaurant and retail store.

The Capitol Drive Tour Center located in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin was closed in 2009 due to consolidation of operations.

Historic register designations

Several Harley-Davidson sites have earned recognition on historic registers for their importance to the company’s heritage and influence within the industry:

Harley-Davidson Motorcycle Factory Building – Included on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994.
Factory No. 7 – Added to the Wisconsin State Register of Historic Places in 2020.

Anniversary celebrations

Beginning with its 90th anniversary in 1993, Harley-Davidson has organized "Ride Home" gatherings to Milwaukee every five years, informally referred to as "Harleyfest." This event attracts Harley enthusiasts from around the world and complements Milwaukee's vibrant festival scene. The 105th anniversary in 2008 included celebrations across several Southeast Wisconsin counties such as Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, and Kenosha. The milestone 110th anniversary was observed in 2013, followed by the 115th in 2018, which took place in Prague, Czech Republic—home to the oldest Harley-Davidson club—and drew more than 100,000 attendees and approximately 60,000 motorcycles. The 120th anniversary was commemorated in Budapest, Hungary, featuring a parade on June 24.

Labor Hall of Fame

In 2004, William S. Harley, Arthur Davidson, William A. Davidson, and Walter Davidson Sr were honored with induction into the Labor Hall of Fame for their pivotal roles in shaping Harley-Davidson’s workforce and contributing to the company’s expansion.

Television drama

The story of Harley-Davidson’s founding was dramatized in the 2016 miniseries Harley and the Davidsons. Robert Aramayo portrayed William Harley, Bug Hall took on the role of Arthur Davidson, and Michiel Huisman played Walter Davidson. This three-night event premiered on the Discovery Channel starting September 5, 2016, showcasing the entrepreneurial spirit and strategic vision behind the company’s establishment.

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