Kelmscott Press
| Company type | Private press |
|---|---|
| Industry | Book publishing, fine press printing |
| Founded | 1891 |
| Founder | William Morris, Emery Walker |
| Defunct | 1898 |
| Headquarters | Hammersmith , England |
Area served | Worldwide |
Key people | William Morris, Emery Walker, Sydney Cockerell |
| Products | Books (fine press editions) |
The Kelmscott Press, established by William Morris and Emery Walker, produced 53 titles across 66 volumes between 1891 and 1898. Each publication was meticulously crafted and adorned by Morris, printed manually in limited runs of approximately 300 copies. Numerous volumes included illustrations by Edward Burne-Jones. The Press sought to emulate the printing techniques of the 15th century and was closely linked to the Gothic revival movement. It played a pivotal role in launching the modern fine press movement, which emphasized artisanal craftsmanship and design through hand-operated presses. While some editions were lavishly embellished, the majority were issued with more restrained decoration.
Inspired by medieval manuscript artistry, Morris often visited the Bodleian Library alongside Burne-Jones to study illuminated texts. Disturbed by the inferior quality of books produced on contemporary rotary printing presses, he partnered with Emery Walker following a lecture Walker gave on book design. Their collaboration resulted in the creation of Kelmscott Press, named after Morris’s residence, Kelmscott Manor, located in Oxfordshire.
Walker produced enlarged photographic reproductions of exemplary typefaces for Morris to trace, after which Morris designed new fonts that Walker scaled down to type size; all three fonts created by Morris originated through this process. Reflecting 15th-century stylistic principles, Morris arranged margins and spacing with reduced gaps between words and lines to generate dense blocks of text bordered by wide outer margins intended for shoulder-notes. Several books contained intricate woodblock ornamentation crafted by Morris himself. To preserve textual consistency, poetry was occasionally set as prose. The Press’s most celebrated publication is its edition of the complete works of Chaucer, featuring 87 wood engravings by Burne-Jones alongside numerous Morris designs, widely regarded as a pinnacle achievement in fine press printing.
Following Morris’s death, the Press ceased operations but left a lasting impact on bookmaking worldwide.
Background
Prior to establishing Kelmscott Press, Morris demonstrated a deep passion for book design. He and Burne-Jones held illuminated manuscripts in high regard and frequently visited the Bodleian Library for study. They also admired the creations of Chaucer and Dürer. Morris sought to revive traditional craftsmanship by examining the methods of illuminators and woodblock engravers. His earlier ventures into book design and illumination began in 1870 with his poetry collection, A Book of Verse. He also authored and designed The House of Wolfings (1889), The Roots of the Mountains (1890), and designed The Story of Gunnlaug the Worm-Tongue (1891). Although he intended to produce an elaborately illustrated edition of his epic poem The Earthly Paradise, this project was abandoned due to incompatibilities between typefaces and illustrations.
Morris favored 19th-century iron hand-presses rather than medieval wooden ones because wooden presses required damp paper, which compromised both the press’s durability and the book’s quality. Iron hand-presses remained accessible during the 1890s. In contrast to modern rotary presses that prioritized speed and cost-efficiency, Morris emphasized superior quality. Some contemporaries criticized newer typefaces as being too thin or harsh compared to classic designs such as Caslon or those by Nicholas Jenson, critiques that Morris also endorsed.
Founding and history
In 1888, Emery Walker, a book enthusiast and Morris's neighbor, delivered talks on letterpress printing and bookbinding. Following these presentations, Morris invited Walker to partner in designing a new typeface. Although Walker did not invest financially, he provided guidance on acquiring superior tools and skilled craftsmen. By January 1891, Morris had leased spaces near Kelmscott House, initially at No. 16 Upper Mall in Hammersmith and later at No. 14, to launch the Kelmscott Press, named after his Oxfordshire residence, Kelmscott Manor. Morris did not draw a formal salary but typically balanced expenses or earned modest profits from book sales. Income generated by smaller publications subsidized the production of expensive folios and quartos. He compensated his workforce generously and arranged social outings.
After Morris passed away in 1896, Cockerell and Walker completed the last volumes of The Earthly Paradise along with ten additional titles that had been initiated or planned prior to his death. These works lacked the customary decorative flourishes characteristic of Morris's style.
Design
Although Kelmscott Press is primarily renowned for its large folio edition of Chaucer’s complete works featuring wood engravings, the majority of its books were unillustrated octavo volumes. Morris focused on enhancing design by employing old-style typefaces and setting type closer to the spine, adhering to 15th-century printing traditions. Despite his recommendation to avoid ornamentation, Kelmscott editions frequently incorporated decorative details.
The hand press allowed for the integration of wood-engraved initials and borders, producing a richer black impression than modern power presses. Morris printed on dampened handmade paper, which created embossments integral to the overall design—signaling to buyers that volumes such as The Gold Legend should not be flattened by pressing. Initially, books were sold untrimmed and unbound; however, after realizing most purchasers did not rebind their copies, Morris began trimming deckle edges. While paper was preferred, limited vellum editions were also produced for collectors despite the difficulties involved.
In 1893, Morris introduced a dense German ink from Hannover that posed challenges for press operators; he reverted to his previous supplier until yellow discoloration appeared in Chaucer pages. Subsequently, a softer Hannover ink was used for the remainder of Chaucer, though its slow drying extended binding times by up to a year. Red ink was applied for titles and shoulder-notes; other colors were experimented with but never widely adopted.
Walker shaped Morris’s design approach by promoting 15th-century stylistic elements such as reduced spacing between words and punctuation marks. Consequently, Morris implemented tighter letter spacing and narrowed inner margins, prioritizing aesthetic appeal over readability and ease of rebinding. To accommodate Walker’s preference for shoulder-notes instead of running titles, fore-margins were expanded. Additionally, Morris published poetry in prose form to reduce blank page areas.
Fonts
Morris created three typefaces specifically for Kelmscott Press: Golden Type, Troy, and Chaucer—a smaller variant of Troy. After deciding to establish the press, he amassed numerous 15th-century European books and conducted thorough studies in printing and typography. He obtained specimens of distinguished typefaces to guide his own designs. By 1889, Morris commenced work on Golden Type—a Roman font inspired by Nicolas Jenson’s Historicae naturalis and Jacobus Rubeus’s type in Historiae Florentini populi. He described designing Golden Type as "the most troublesome task" he had ever undertaken. Enlarged photographic enlargements of letters assisted him in refining the design through multiple revisions at each stage. Morris and Walker were pioneers in utilizing photographic enlargement to develop typefaces, merging historical influences with Victorian-era technology.
Edward Prince cut the punches for Golden Type in 1890; casting was handled by Sir Charles Reed and Sons. The 14-point font was finalized during winter 1890–1891. Golden Type did not include italic or bold styles nor featured brackets or dashes. Its substantial weight complemented wood engravings well but its large size and breadth limited commercial viability. Stanley Morison notably criticized its oversized capital letters.
Following Golden Type, Morris designed Troy—a "semi-Gothic" typeface created with particular attention to legibility. Using the same methodology and influenced by publications from Shoeffer and Zainer, he completed an 18-point Troy font in 1892 after delays caused by illness. A 12-point Troy variant called Chaucer was also developed for the Kelmscott Chaucer edition. The broad fonts required wider book formats. For paper stock, Morris sourced handmade sheets from Joseph Batchelor and Son that featured watermarks he designed along with unusual dimensions; this paper earned acclaim and imitators alike, prompting Batchelor to market it under the name Kelmscott Handmade at Morris’s suggestion.
During the 1890s, photoengraving technology enabled unauthorized reproductions of Morris's typefaces. When an American foundry attempted to distribute his designs in the United States without permission, Morris refused consent. Nevertheless, Joseph W. Phinney of Dickinson Type Foundry marketed a Jenson Old Style similar to Golden Type, while an imitation Troy named Satanick appeared in 1896. Sir Charles Reed and Sons also sold Kelmscott Old Style type until Sydney Cockerell—the Kelmscott Press administrator—threatened legal action against them.
Ornamentation
Several Kelmscott Press books are distinguished by elaborate embellishments reminiscent of Morris's designs for upholstery and wallpaper. In 1913, Holbrook Jackson remarked that the lettering and decoration in Kelmscott volumes seemed to merge organically. Title pages often featured Victorian-inspired ornamental designs. Initially, Morris created woodblock initials that were overly bold or large, but these improved with experience. The degree of decoration varied considerably; for instance, The History of Godefrey of Boloyne was considered excessively adorned, whereas earlier Kelmscott editions maintained a more restrained approach. Morris's use of borders and capital letters drew more from his wallpaper patterns than from direct textual illustration. Unlike the delicate illuminations found in medieval manuscripts, Morris’s substantial wood engravings posed production difficulties in the Chaucer, necessitating steel reinforcement of the hand press to handle the heavy large-scale decorations. Morris insisted on precise duplication of his designs by wood engravers, a stance that differed from John Ruskin's belief that artisans should contribute creatively to the final work. Until the publication of the Chaucer, Kelmscott volumes did not print on the reverse side of woodblock pages, despite Morris’s ambition to unify text and imagery.
Burne-Jones, who frequently contributed illustrations for Kelmscott, adapted many wood engravings from his earlier paintings, prioritizing their decorative appeal over literal narrative representation and often reviewed them inverted.
Printer's Marks
Morris created three distinct printer's marks for Kelmscott Press: a straightforward textual mark used on octavo and small quarto formats; a large rectangular emblem with a leafy background first appearing in The History of Godefrey of Boloyne for quartos; and a unique mark reserved solely for the Chaucer edition.
Publications
The first book released by Kelmscott Press was Morris’s novel The Story of the Glittering Plain (May 1891), which rapidly sold out. The press issued 23 titles by Morris himself—more than any other author featured. To achieve his preferred block-like text layout, Morris employed paragraph symbols instead of indentation and sold the initial copy for one pound to Wilfrid Scawen Blunt. Reflecting William Caxton's Renaissance-era publishing model, Kelmscott focused on poetry, Morris’s writings, and medieval romance and verse. In 1895, an American edition of Dante Rossetti’s Hand and Soul was published and distributed by Way and Williams Publishers. The press also released works by Keats, Shelley, Ruskin, Swinburne, as well as various medieval manuscripts.
The Love-Lyrics & Songs of Proteus
Jane Morris, William Morris's wife, played a key role in organizing the publication of Wilfrid Scawen Blunt’s The Love-Lyrics & Songs of Proteus (1892). Blunt had numerous romantic relationships, including one with Jane herself. His sonnet sequence "Natalia's Resurrection" narrates the love between a young man and a married Roman woman that transcends death. Jane admired these poems and advocated for their inclusion in the volume, although the true muse was probably Margaret Talbot, another lover. When Talbot objected to her portrayal, 18 pages of poetry were excised prior to publication.
Beowulf
The Kelmscott edition of Beowulf represents what has been described as Morris's "most challenging" endeavor. Using A. J. Wyatt’s prose translation as a foundation, Morris reworked it into verse employing archaic diction while developing the Troy typeface specifically for this edition. Approximately 300 copies were printed and sold at around two guineas each. Biographer E. P. Thompson regarded it as "perhaps the worst thing he ever wrote." Translator James M. Garnatt found it nearly incomprehensible; however, contemporary critics such as Theodore Watts writing in The Athenaeum commended its achievement. Oxford professor Andy Orchard observed Morris’s strict fidelity to original syntax alongside creative compound words like "shade-goer" and "horn-house." Old English scholar Roy Liuzza noted that Morris aimed to replicate the linguistic distance between modern English and Anglo-Saxon by avoiding Romance-derived vocabulary and employing an elaborate medieval style—an approach modern readers often find "most objectionable." Despite this reception, Morris endeavored to make the poem resonate within his own linguistic framework. The glossary included with the edition—added against Morris’s preference—proved insufficient to aid readers’ understanding.
Kelmscott Chaucer
The Kelmscott Chaucer was based on Walter William Skeat's edition of Chaucer's complete works and was crafted as an "art object," setting it apart from the six-volume series published by Clarendon Press. It includes 87 wood engravings inspired by Edward Burne-Jones's original sketches. Burne-Jones deliberately avoided depicting Chaucer’s more vulgar or humorous narratives, instead choosing a solemn tone and a personal literal interpretation, as seen in illustrations like the wicker-basket house from "The House of Fame" and the brass horse featured in "The Squire's Tale." Due to production delays and Morris’s deteriorating health, the number of paper copies printed rose from 325 to 425, each priced at 20 pounds; additionally, 13 vellum copies were sold at 120 guineas apiece. Despite its artistic success, the Chaucer did not turn a profit and was financially supported by sales of other volumes.
Morris was responsible for designing the title page, 14 large decorative borders, 18 frames for illustrations, and 26 ornamental initials. Printing commenced on August 8, 1894. An initial problem with ink causing yellow discoloration was resolved by switching to a gentler Hannover ink; affected pages were restored through exposure to sunlight. The majority of editions were bound in plain paper boards, while 48 copies featured pigskin bindings designed by Morris and executed by Doves Bindery, which cost an extra 13 pounds.
The Kelmscott Chaucer received acclaim as "the finest book ever printed" and was considered the press’s "crowning achievement," often compared with the Gutenberg Bible. William Butler Yeats described it as "the most beautiful of all printed books," and it has been recognized as a milestone in printing history. Historian Alan Crawford praised it as a close collaboration and masterpiece between Morris and Burne-Jones. However, some critics pointed out that its two-column layout on large pages made reading less convenient compared to editions such as the Golden Cockerel Press's Canterbury Tales.
Criticism
Critics have observed that Kelmscott Press's fine press books, primarily accessible to affluent audiences, stand in contrast to Morris’s socialist principles. Elizabeth Carolyn Miller of UC Davis argues that Kelmscott sought to establish a utopian printing environment that criticizes mass-produced print culture. Jeffrey Skoblow interprets Kelmscott publications as engaging with commodification through a Romantic-Marxist lens.
During Morris’s time, observers questioned why he produced costly books with limited accessibility despite his socialist beliefs. Academic discussions have explored the political significance of his output. Miller views Kelmscott and similar fine press works as utopian critiques targeting mass culture, aligned with an "idealist" aesthetic aiming to elevate art toward perfection. While Aestheticism tended to separate artistic ideals from ethical concerns, some commentators associate Morris’s work with commodity culture that underpins Aestheticism. Miller asserts that Morris pursued an ideal form of production that rendered print a utopian domain for art following revolutionary change. Kelmscott functioned as a disruptive force within printing, representing a radical departure from conventional practices.
Morris held that the cultural influence of movable type had been exaggerated. Miller describes the form of Kelmscott books as utopian: wood-engraved images emphasize tangible material qualities, while ornate leafy borders evoke nature but simultaneously underscore their artificial construction. In News from Nowhere, a utopian society privileges spoken discourse over written text, reflecting an oral preference over bureaucratic language and implying a decline in traditional bookmaking. Kelmscott immersed its audience in both archaic and futuristic production values to distance them from contemporary realities.
Thorstein Veblen criticized Kelmscott books as examples of "conspicuous waste," emphasizing their high cost and impracticality as symbols of status. Linda Dowling and William Peterson considered Kelmscott less politically engaged than other works by Morris. Skoblow argued that the "rigorously materialist impulse" evident in Kelmscott publications fits within a Romantic-Marxist examination of commodification.
Legacy
Following the closure of the Kelmscott Press, remaining paper stock and typefaces were transferred to the Chiswick Press; in 1940, the Kelmscott typefaces were acquired by Cambridge University Press and subsequently incorporated into the Cambridge University Library collection. Decorative elements and woodblocks found their way to the British Museum. Meanwhile, the presses and related machinery were sold to C. R. Ashbee’s Essex House Press.
Ashbee’s Essex House Press emulated Kelmscott’s style by utilizing identical ink, paper, vellum, and printing presses. He commissioned wood engravings and developed two unique typefaces named Endeavor and Kings Prayer Book. William S. Peterson, an expert on Morris, characterized Ashbee’s fonts as "peculiar and unattractive," yet acknowledged that the publications retained "a distinctive period charm." Their most prominent production was the Prayer Book of King Edward VII. Art historian Pamela Todd commended their output as "exquisite," achieving "a similarly compelling impact as Morris." Despite producing 83 titles, Essex House Press found it difficult to rival mechanically produced Kelmscott-style books.
Cobden-Sanderson, a binder at the Doves Bindery responsible for binding Kelmscott’s Chaucer, co-established Doves Press alongside Emery Walker. They employed comparable paper and vellum but opted for a restrained decorative approach with sporadic calligraphic initials. Their typeface drew inspiration from Nicolas Jenson’s Renaissance designs. The Doves Press's five-volume folio Bible remains a milestone in fine press history and served as an influence for German presses like Bremer Press and Janus Presse.
The Vale Press, created by Charles Ricketts and Charles Shannon, took inspiration from 15th-century calligraphy for their typefaces and concentrated on literary classics to highlight design and page layout. Sharing type with Vale, the Eragny Press gained recognition for Lucien Pissarro’s illustrations. Over four decades, the Ashendene Press issued refined poetry and folio classics. In Dublin, Dun Emer Press, founded by Elizabeth and Lily Yeats, also played a significant role in this movement. These presses emphasized artisanal quality as a response to the Industrial Revolution’s impact on craftsmanship; many founders embraced socialist or anarchist ideologies, with Kelmscott publications often discussed within radical intellectual circles.
Kelmscott’s influence extended to American fine press printers as well. Its Hand and Soul inspired U.S.-based printers, while Daniel Berkeley Updike’s The Altar Book (1896) features ornamental elements closely echoing those in Kelmscott’s Chaucer.