Kodak

Eastman Kodak Company
	File:Logo of the Eastman Kodak Company.svg
	File:KODAK ROCHESTER.jpg Corporate headquarters located in Rochester, New York
Company type	Public
Traded as	NYSE: KODK; Russell 2000 component; DJIA component (1930–2004) S&P 500 component (until 2010) S&P 400 component (2010 until Chapter 11 filing in 2012)
Industry	Electronics; Graphic arts; Imaging;
Predecessor	The Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company
Founded	May 23, 1892; 134 years ago
Founders	George Eastman; Henry A. Strong;
Headquarters	Kodak Tower; Rochester, New York, U.S.
Area served	Global
Key people	James V. Continenza (executive chairman and CEO)
Products	Digital imaging, photographic supplies, equipment and services, batteries
Revenue	Decrease US$1.04 billion (2024)
Operating income	Increase US$110 million (2024)
Net income	Increase US$102 million (2024)
Total assets	Decrease US$2.0 billion (2024)
Total equity	Decrease US$641 million (2024)
Number of employees	3,900 (2024)
Website	kodak.com

The Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak (), is a publicly traded American corporation specializing in photographic film and digital imaging technologies. Its headquarters are situated in Rochester, New York, while it is legally incorporated in New Jersey. Kodak was a pioneer in establishing the photographic film market for consumers.

Founded on May 23, 1892, by innovators George Eastman and Henry A. Strong, Kodak evolved into a dominant producer of cameras and film products. Under Eastman’s visionary management, the firm implemented a model of welfare capitalism and maintained close community connections within Rochester. Throughout the twentieth century, Kodak held a commanding presence in the photographic film industry and was known for significant innovations emerging from its research laboratories. Notable products such as the Kodak Brownie and Instamatic cameras contributed to Kodak’s strong brand identity and market leadership.

In the late 1990s, Kodak encountered fierce rivalry from Fujifilm and faced difficulties transitioning to digital photography despite inventing the first fully integrated digital camera. Attempts to expand into chemical manufacturing did not succeed, resulting in a strategic shift toward digital imaging and printing solutions during the 2000s. These efforts were insufficient to return the company to profitability, culminating in Kodak’s Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing in January 2012.

After restructuring and selling off non-essential assets, Kodak emerged from bankruptcy protection in September 2013 with a renewed focus on commercial digital printing technologies, motion picture film production, and traditional film manufacturing—operations now distributed through its spinoff entity Kodak Alaris. Additionally, the company licenses its brand for third-party products such as JK Imaging’s PIXPRO line of digital cameras. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020, Kodak expanded its portfolio by entering pharmaceutical materials manufacturing.

Name

George Eastman had a particular fondness for the letter k, which he described as a "strong, incisive sort of letter." Together with his mother, Maria, Eastman devised the name Kodak using an Anagrams game. His goal was to create a brand name that was brief, easy to say, distinctive, and easy to remember. A 1920 advertisement explained that the name was "simply invented... made up from letters of the alphabet to meet our trade-mark requirements." The Kodak trademark was officially registered in 1888. Some have also suggested that the name imitates the sound of a camera shutter.

Founding

In 1880, Eastman joined forces with Henry A. Strong, and on January 1, 1881, they founded the Eastman Dry Plate Company, with Strong serving as president and Eastman as treasurer. Initially focused on marketing dry plates for cameras, Eastman soon shifted attention to roll film development. The company reorganized on October 1, 1884, becoming the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company. In 1885, Eastman and William Walker secured a patent for the first practical film roll holder, allowing multiple exposures per camera load. That same year, Eastman patented "American film," a type of paper-based film. Subsequent advancements included an 1889 patent covering nitrocellulose film.

The business experienced several reorganizations: it was renamed the Eastman Company in November 1889 with stock valued at $100 per share and later changed its name to Eastman Kodak on May 23, 1892. In 1901, Eastman Kodak of New Jersey was created alongside its New York counterpart until 1936 when the New York entity was dissolved and its assets transferred to New Jersey. Today, Kodak remains incorporated in New Jersey and maintains its headquarters in Rochester.

The Kodak camera

Eastman patented the Kodak camera in 1888—a box-style camera featuring a fixed-focus lens without a viewfinder; instead, two V-shaped silhouettes served as aiming guides. The device included a rotating key to advance the film, a pull-string to cock the shutter, and a release button to capture images on celluloid film. Users pressed the button to take pictures and then turned the key to move the film forward.

Priced at $25 with 100 exposures preloaded, customers could mail their cameras back to Kodak’s Rochester facility along with $10 for processing. Kodak would then return prints, negatives, and a fresh film roll. Additional film rolls were sold for $2 each, catering especially to professionals who developed their own photos. By simplifying photo development, Kodak opened photography to amateurs. Its famous slogan "You Press the Button, We Do the Rest" became widely recognized and significantly enhanced brand recognition.

Expansion

Throughout the 1890s and early 20th century, Kodak experienced swift growth driven by innovation, acquisitions, and exclusive agreements. Eastman prioritized dominating the more lucrative film market rather than cameras themselves, establishing a razor-and-blades business model that remained influential for decades. To accommodate expansion, Kodak built Kodak Park in Rochester in 1890.

Kodak expanded internationally by setting up European operations under Eastman Photographic Materials Company and later Kodak Limited in the United Kingdom. An Australian branch was launched in 1908; French and German subsidiaries followed after acquisitions such as Nagel in Germany. The introduction of the Brownie camera in 1900 targeted younger users and further expanded the amateur photography market. Kodak also secured exclusive supplier contracts for film used in the burgeoning motion picture industry by partnering with producers like Thomas Edison.

By 1914, Kodak had constructed its headquarters on State Street in Rochester. By 1922, it ranked as the second-largest purchaser of silver in the United States—a testament to its prominence in photographic materials. The company joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1930.

During World War I, Kodak contributed by training pilots for aerial reconnaissance missions while seeking greater control over chemical supplies amid disrupted supply chains. After the war, acquisitions included a hardwood distillation facility in Tennessee that eventually evolved into Eastman Chemical Company.

Following Henry Strong’s death in 1919, George Eastman assumed company presidency before stepping back from daily operations in 1925 while remaining on the board of directors. William Stuber succeeded him as president alongside Frank Lovejoy.

Kodak Research Laboratories opened in 1912 under Kenneth Mees’s leadership with a focus on color film emulsions and radiography advancements. In 1915, Kodak introduced Kodachrome—a two-color film developed by John Capstaff—and marketed duplitized film designed for X-rays to reduce radiation exposure.

Labor relations

Based in Rochester, Kodak was an early adopter of welfare capitalism during the 1910s and 1920s. George Eastman, the company's founder, introduced employee benefit schemes such as a workmen's compensation fund in 1910 and a profit-sharing plan in 1912. In 1919, Eastman sold a substantial portion of his shares to workers at below-market prices, thereby aligning employee interests with the company’s growth objectives. By 1928, Kodak had broadened its benefits package to incorporate life insurance, disability protection, and retirement plans, largely due to efforts by company statistician Marion Folsom. These programs prompted other Rochester businesses to improve wages and benefits to remain competitive in attracting labor.

Eastman’s approach to business sought to discourage union formation by providing compensation packages more attractive than those offered by unions, thus minimizing strike risks and related expenses. The employee stock sales also helped diversify ownership, appealing to investors concerned about Eastman’s dominant shareholding while reducing antitrust concerns. Given Kodak’s capital-intensive operations and relatively low labor costs, these employee benefits represented a modest increase in overall expenses.

Nonetheless, Kodak’s recruitment policies under Eastman favored Anglo-Saxon Protestants while excluding Catholic immigrants, African Americans, and Jewish individuals. Women constituted approximately one-third of the workforce. A family-based hiring system reinforced Kodak’s industrial community model. These exclusionary hiring practices continued until after World War II. The combination of shared cultural backgrounds and comprehensive benefits fostered strong employee loyalty and effectively prevented unionization throughout much of the 20th century.

Great Depression

The Great Depression had a profound effect on Kodak, leading to layoffs of 17% of its workforce between 1929 and 1933. Company founder George Eastman died by suicide in 1932 amid deteriorating health conditions. Between 1931 and 1936, Kodak took part in the Rochester Plan—a privately funded unemployment insurance initiative spearheaded by Marion Folsom, who later became a company director and served as a cabinet secretary under President Eisenhower. While this program enhanced workforce stability at Kodak, its influence on the wider Rochester community remained limited due to minimal corporate involvement.

During this era, Kodak's research laboratories made significant technological advances, including the introduction of the commercially successful three-color film known as Kodachrome in 1935. The company also expanded into producing industrial high-speed cameras and diversified its chemical manufacturing by developing vitamin concentrates and plastics. In 1934, Kodak collaborated with Edwin Land to supply polarized lenses; Land would go on to establish Polaroid and invent the instant camera utilizing Kodak emulsions.

Leadership transitions during this time saw Frank Lovejoy take on the presidency in 1934, followed by Thomas J. Hargrave in 1941.

World War II

After the United States entered World War II, Kodak redirected its focus from consumer film production toward supporting the war effort under guidance from the War Production Board. The company produced film, cameras, microfilm materials, pontoons, synthetic fibers, as well as explosives such as RDX and hand grenades.

Kodak’s European branches remained operational throughout the conflict. Its German subsidiary, Kodak AG, was placed under trusteeship in 1941 to ensure continued operations amid wartime conditions. This facility manufactured film and military components while employing forced labor at sites in Stuttgart and Berlin. Additionally, Kodak’s plants located in occupied France contributed to German military production. The company also maintained imports from Nazi Germany through neutral countries like Switzerland—a practice that attracted diplomatic criticism but resulted in no postwar sanctions.

Manhattan Project

Following a 1943 discussion between Kenneth Mees and Leslie Groves, Kodak researchers became involved in the Manhattan Project to assist with uranium-235 enrichment at Oak Ridge.

Kodak's experimentation with radiation persisted after World War II. In 1945, it was discovered that X-ray film fogging resulted from exposure to radiation originating from nuclear tests, which was traced back to strawboard packaging contaminated by fallout from the Trinity explosion. Subsequently, Kodak began monitoring atmospheric radiation levels at Kodak Park. By 1951, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) shared nuclear test schedules with Kodak in return for the company's agreement to remain silent following Kodak’s legal threats over damaged film. Later on, Kodak manufactured emulsions specifically designed for fallout radiation analysis.

Post-war expansion

Kodak experienced its peak during the post-war economic boom when demand for film soared across amateur, commercial, and government sectors. In 1948, Tennessee Eastman introduced non-flammable cellulose acetate film, which rapidly replaced nitrate film in motion pictures. Kodak introduced the super glue product Eastman 910 in 1958. Its cameras were selected for use by NASA on space missions. The debut of the first Instamatic cameras in 1963 marked Kodak’s most cost-effective camera series. By 1962, annual revenue exceeded $1 billion and reached $2 billion by 1966. Leadership passed from Albert K. Chapman (1952) to William S. Vaughn (1960), and then to Louis K. Eilers (1969–1972). During the 1970s, Kodak made advances in dye laser technology and secured a patent for the Bayer Filter used in RGB sensor arrays.

Throughout the Cold War era, Kodak participated in classified government initiatives, developing cameras and film for the CIA’s U-2 spy planes under the Bridgehead Program beginning in 1955. The company also provided imaging equipment for reconnaissance satellites such as KH-7 Gambit and KH-9 Hexagon. Between 1963 and 1970, Kodak engineered optical sensors for the ultimately cancelled Manned Orbiting Laboratory project and later offered NASA expertise on related astronomical instruments.

From 1936 to 1966, Kodak's worldwide workforce doubled in size, with most employees located in Rochester. The company was regarded as a desirable employer offering competitive wages and benefits including an annual wage dividend averaging 15% of base pay. Employee retention was notably high; turnover hovered around 13% during the 1950s compared to a national average near 50%. Kodak’s presence significantly influenced Rochester’s identity as a company-centric city.

Kodak maintained a consistent business strategy from the 1930s through the 1970s due to its dominant market position and absence of mergers or acquisitions that could have broadened its portfolio. Research and development efforts concentrated primarily on traditional film products, causing Kodak to fall behind rivals Polaroid and Xerox in instant photography and photocopier markets; although Kodak launched its own models in the mid-1970s, both product lines were discontinued by the 1990s.

Competition with Fujifilm

During the 1980s, Japanese rival Fujifilm entered the American market by offering more affordable film and related products. A significant advantage was secured when Fujifilm became the official film supplier for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. Establishing a manufacturing facility in the U.S., Fujifilm steadily increased its market presence, climbing from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% by 1997. The company also gained traction within professional photography circles through specialty films such as Velvia and Provia, directly competing with Kodak's prominent Kodachrome brand.

Kodak responded to this mounting rivalry by implementing cost reduction strategies, including workforce reductions. Despite these pressures, Kodak’s revenues and profits expanded throughout the 1990s, reaching $16 billion in revenue by 1996 and $2.5 billion in profit by 1999 under CEO George M. C. Fisher.

In 1995, Kodak lodged a complaint with the U.S. Commerce Department accusing Fujifilm of unfair trade practices in Japan, which escalated to a dispute at the World Trade Organization. However, Kodak’s allegations were dismissed by the WTO in 1998.

The onset of a price war in 1997 severely affected Kodak’s financial results—its revenue dropped more than 10%, from $15.97 billion in 1996 to $14.36 billion in 1997, while net income plummeted from $1.29 billion to just $5 million. Within that year, Kodak’s share of the U.S. market slipped from 80.1% to 74.7%.

Both Kodak and Fujifilm identified digital photography as a disruptive force and pursued diversification efforts; however, Fujifilm managed this transition more successfully. By 2013, Fujifilm discontinued motion picture film production, leaving Kodak as the sole major provider in that sector.

Transition to Digital Technology

Contrary to popular belief that Kodak failed due to neglecting digital cameras, the company was actually an early pioneer in digital imaging technology. Starting in 1972, Kodak Research Labs (KRL) initiated work on Charge Coupled Device (CCD) image sensors—critical components for digital cameras. By 1974, KRL was developing color video cameras (camcorders), and Kodak scientist Peter L. P. Dillon invented integral color image sensors and single-sensor color video cameras, which laid the groundwork for modern digital and smartphone cameras. In 1982, Kodak produced a high-resolution color CCD sensor.

In 1975, Kodak engineer Steven Sasson created the first portable digital camera. Despite this breakthrough and a 1979 internal report forecasting a digital shift by 2010, Kodak’s leadership hesitated to fully embrace digital technology due to concerns over substantial investment costs and potential threats from emerging competitors.

During the tenures of CEOs Colby Chandler and Kay Whitmore, Kodak sought diversification into chemicals and pharmaceuticals, notably acquiring Sterling Drug for $5.1 billion in 1988—a venture that ultimately underperformed financially. Concurrently, Kodak continued funding research into digital technologies throughout the 1980s.

Kodak also ventured into information systems by purchasing Unix developer Interactive Systems Corporation in 1988 to support its imaging products and Photo CD. This acquisition conflicted with its stake in Sun Microsystems. Interactive Systems was divested by 1993 after partial acquisition by SunSoft. Despite this, Kodak maintained collaboration with Sun on document management solutions and later filed lawsuits against Sun over software patents acquired from Wang Laboratories.

In 1993, incoming CEO George M. C. Fisher redirected focus away from chemical diversification toward gradual adoption of digital technologies. In 1994, Tennessee Eastman was spun off as Eastman Chemical Company, and Sterling Drug’s business units were sold later that year. Kodak launched digital self-service kiosks and began producing digital cameras such as the Apple QuickTake. However, ongoing growth in film sales during the decade delayed a full transition to digital.

Starting around 2001, film sales began to decline. Under CEO Daniel Carp, Kodak aggressively expanded its presence in the digital camera market with its EasyShare series, becoming the leading U.S. brand by 2005 with $5.7 billion in sales. The company also broadened its footprint into digital medical imaging through acquisitions of Israeli firms Algotec Systems and OREX Computed Radiography.

Despite initial gains, Kodak’s digital camera segment faced slim profit margins due to fierce competition and rapid market evolution. Asian manufacturers offered lower-priced alternatives that often compelled Kodak to sell at losses. Simultaneously, diminishing profitability from traditional film compounded financial difficulties. By 2007, Kodak had dropped to fourth place in U.S. digital camera sales with a market share of 9.6%, falling further to seventh place by 2010 with just a 7% share behind rivals such as Canon Inc., Sony, and Nikon. The proliferation of smartphone cameras reduced demand for standalone digital cameras after their sales peaked in 2007 and subsequently declined.

Revised strategy

Following Antonio Pérez's appointment as CEO in 2005, Kodak redefined its corporate approach by outsourcing production and shutting down manufacturing sites. In August 2006, the company sold its digital camera manufacturing unit to Flextronics, thereby ending all internal production. Kodak withdrew from the film camera industry and progressively discontinued film products, resulting in the closure of 13 film manufacturing plants and 130 photo processing centers, alongside workforce reductions totaling 50,000 employees between 2004 and 2007. By 2009, due to a sharp drop in demand, Kodak halted sales of its legendary Kodachrome color film.

Pérez directed substantial investments toward digital technology and innovative service offerings aimed at boosting profit margins, particularly by developing a high-margin printer ink segment to counterbalance declining film revenues. This strategy attracted criticism given the fierce competition within the printer market. Unlike market leader Hewlett-Packard, which employed a razor-and-blades model—selling low-cost printers paired with expensive cartridges—Kodak opted for a different approach. By 2011, Kodak’s inkjet printers were approaching profitability; however, analysts remained doubtful as the proliferation of digital devices diminished printing needs. Despite this, inkjet printers stayed central to Kodak’s product line until slumping sales compelled the company to withdraw from the consumer inkjet printer market in September 2012.

Financial restructuring and bankruptcy

Kodak’s deteriorating financial situation resulted in a $300 million loan from KKR in 2009. To address outstanding debts, Kodak divested multiple divisions, including the lucrative Kodak Health Group, generating $2.35 billion used to retire $1.15 billion of secured liabilities. Approximately 8,100 employees transitioned to Onex, which rebranded as Carestream Health. In 2010, Kodak was removed from the S&P 500 index.

Amid escalating debt and shrinking revenue streams, Kodak turned to patent litigation as a revenue source, securing $838 million in licensing settlements during 2010, including agreements with LG. Between 2010 and 2012, Kodak engaged in several patent disputes with Apple, yielding varied results.

By 2011, Kodak’s cash reserves had declined to $957 million from $1.6 billion a decade earlier. In an effort to avoid insolvency, the company considered selling or licensing its patent assets. December 2011 saw the resignation of two board members appointed by KKR. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and obtained a $950 million credit facility from Citigroup to sustain operations. The deadline for submitting a reorganization plan was set for February 2013.

During bankruptcy proceedings, Kodak sold patents valued at around $525 million to a consortium comprising Apple, Google, Facebook, Amazon, Microsoft, Samsung, Adobe, and HTC through Intellectual Ventures and RPX Corporation. The company discontinued production of digital cameras, pocket video recorders, digital photo frames, and inkjet printers. As part of a settlement with the UK-based Kodak Pension Plan, it divested its photographic film business along with commercial scanners and photo kiosk operations under the new entity Kodak Alaris. Additionally, the Image Sensor Solutions division was sold to Truesense Imaging Inc.

On September 3, 2013, Kodak emerged from bankruptcy refocused as a technology firm specializing in imaging solutions for business markets. Its principal segments became Digital Printing & Enterprise and Graphics, Entertainment & Commercial Films.

Kodak’s decline had a profound effect on Rochester's local economy; job losses were replaced predominantly by lower-wage employment opportunities, contributing to elevated poverty levels. From 2007 through 2018, economic setbacks linked to Kodak offset gains achieved in other sectors within the region.

Post-bankruptcy

On March 12, 2014, Kodak appointed Jeffrey J. Clarke as CEO and added him to the board, initiating a pivotal change in its leadership strategy. By the close of 2016, the company achieved its first annual profit since emerging from bankruptcy, indicating a positive shift in its financial trajectory.

Kodak has expanded its product range through brand licensing agreements rather than direct manufacturing. Since 2013, JK Imaging has been producing Micro Four-Thirds cameras under the Kodak brand name. The Kodak Ektra smartphone, created by the Bullitt Group, debuted in 2016, followed by digital tablets launched in collaboration with Archos in 2017. In 2018, Kodak explored the cryptocurrency market with KodakCoin and introduced the Bitcoin-mining device Kodak KashMiner; however, both projects were ultimately unsuccessful.

In 2016, Kodak established eApeiron as a separate entity, supported by investment from Alibaba, with a focus on fighting counterfeit goods and enhancing authenticity within e-commerce platforms.

Although the company has shifted focus toward digital technologies, film remains an essential product category for Kodak. It continues to supply film stock to major Hollywood studios under contracts renewed in 2015 and again in 2020. Responding to increased interest from enthusiasts, Kodak announced plans in 2022 to hire additional film technicians to support growth in this area.

Current products and services

Kodak’s operations are divided into four main segments: Traditional Print, Digital Print, Advanced Material & Chemicals (including Motion Picture), and Brand Licensing (which oversees consumer products manufactured by third parties).

Kodak continues to be the leading supplier of film stock for the U.S. motion picture industry and provides packaging solutions, functional printing, graphic communications, and professional services to clients worldwide.

Kodak Alaris, headquartered in the United Kingdom, owns the rights to still photography films and operates the Kodak Moments photo kiosk business as part of the 2012 bankruptcy resolution. It formerly managed Photo Paper, Photochemicals, Display, and Software (PPDS) divisions but sold these assets to Sino Promise in China in 2020. In 2023, Sino Promise returned photochemical rights back to Eastman Kodak, which subsequently re-licensed them under its own brand.

Materials

KodaCOLOR Fabric Inks
KodaLUX Fabric Coatings
Silver-based Anti-microbial Materials and Coatings

Chemicals

Specialty chemical toll manufacturing services

Industrial Films

Kodak Aerocolor IV 125 2460 Color Negative Aerial Film
Kodak ACCUMAX plotter films designed for printed circuit boards
Kodak ESTAR polyester films

Motion Picture

Despite the dominance of digital technology since the early 2000s, some filmmakers still opt for film formats due to artistic preferences. Kodak manufactures motion picture camera films available in 8mm, 16mm, and 35mm sizes along with technical stocks such as inter-negatives, duplication sound films, final print stocks, and processing chemicals.

Available camera films include:

Black & white negative film: Kodak Double X 5222/7222
Black & white reversal film: Kodak Tri-X 7266
Color negative films: Kodak Vision3 50D 5203/7203, Vision3 250D 5207/7207, Vision3 200T 5213/7213, Vision3 500T 5219/7219
Color reversal film: Kodak Ektachrome 100D 7294

Still photography film

Eastman Kodak remains the manufacturer of Kodak-branded still photography films, while Kodak Alaris oversees their sales, marketing, and distribution efforts. Additionally, Kodak provides contract coating and packaging services for other brands such as Cinestill, Lomography, and since 2022, Fujifilm, which sources certain color negative films from Kodak despite being a former rival. Due to shortages in still film supply, some third-party vendors like Flic Film have made 35mm motion picture stock available to still photography users.

Kodak offers a variety of photographic films in both 35mm and 120 formats. In response to increased interest from enthusiasts, Kodak reintroduced a reformulated version of the discontinued Ektachrome 100 in 35mm format in September 2018, with subsequent launches in 120 and 4x5 formats occurring the following year.

Black & White negative films
- Kodak Tri-X 320
- Kodak Tri-X 400
- Kodak TMAX 100
- Kodak TMAX 400
- Kodak TMAX P3200

Consumer color negative films
- Kodak ColorPlus/Kodacolor 200
- Kodak ProImage 100
- Kodak Gold 200
- Kodak Ultramax 400
- Kodak Ultramax 800 (used in single-use cameras)

Professional color negative films
- Kodak Ektar 100
- Kodak Portra 160
- Kodak Portra 400
- Kodak Portra 800

Color reversal film
- Kodak Ektachrome E100

Conventional and digital printing

Kodak manufactures commercial inkjet printers, electrophotographic machinery, along with associated consumables and services. Its current portfolio includes commercial printers such as Prosper, Nexfinity, and Uteco, as well as imprinting systems like Prosper and Versamark. The company also provides flexographic printing technology under the Flexcel brand and has been producing computer-to-plate (CTP) equipment since 1995.

To broaden its functional printing solutions, Kodak has partnered strategically with touch-panel manufacturers including UniPixel and Kingsbury Corp.

In 1997, Heidelberg Printing Machines AG collaborated with Kodak to establish Nexpress Solutions LLC for the development of a high-end digital color printing press. Heidelberg purchased Kodak’s Office Imaging black-and-white digital printing division in 1999. However, in 2004, Heidelberg returned its Digital Print division back to Kodak through a mutual agreement.

Brand

The Kodak name is licensed across various consumer products, notably including the PIXPRO line of digital cameras manufactured by JK Imaging.

Batteries

Kodak licenses its brand for a range of batteries encompassing alkaline, lithium, hearing aid, and button cell types.

Professional photo chemistry

Following Kodak's bankruptcy, Kodak Alaris acquired the rights to the professional photo chemistry brand in 2012. These rights were transferred to Sino Promise, a Chinese supplier specializing in color chemistry for minilabs, in 2020. After Sino Promise exited this market in early 2023, Photo Systems Inc. US obtained the brand rights directly from Eastman Kodak in September 2023 with plans to revive the complete assortment of Black & White, C-41, RA-4, and E6 photochemical products.

Photographic film and printing paper

While Kodak still manufactures specialty films and formats favored by certain consumers, it has phased out the majority of its legacy film types, including the renowned Kodachrome. Historically, the company was a dominant supplier of silver halide photographic paper used for both film and digital image printing. Production of black-and-white photo paper ended in 2005, and by 2013, all paper manufacturing operations were transferred to Kodak Alaris.

Film cameras

From its inception until 2007, Kodak produced film cameras, beginning with the Kodak No. 1 introduced in 1888. Among its most successful models in the 20th century were the Brownie series (1900–1986) and the Instamatic line (1968–1988). Cameras manufactured between 1914 and 1932 incorporated autographic film technology, enabling users to inscribe information directly onto the film margin.

In 1982, Kodak launched disc film cameras that gained initial popularity due to their compact design but were discontinued by 1988 because of unsatisfactory image quality. On January 13, 2004, Kodak declared it would stop marketing conventional still film cameras—excluding disposables—in markets such as the US, Canada, and Western Europe, while continuing sales in regions including India, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and China. By late 2005, production of Advanced Photo System cameras ceased, and in 2006 Kodak licensed its brand for camera manufacture to Vivitar.

Slide projectors

The concept for a slide projector was acquired by Kodak from Italian-American inventor Louis Misuraca during the early 1960s. In 1962, Kodak introduced its Carousel series of slide projectors; a patent related to this technology was awarded to Kodak engineer David E. Hansen in 1965. Production of slide projectors was discontinued in October 2004.

An innovative product that merged digital technology with projection was the Kodak Datashow. This device employed a translucent liquid crystal display panel positioned atop an overhead projector to display video output from a personal computer. Although it offered monochrome images with limited resolution and contrast, it was priced competitively at just over £1,000, providing an economical option for group viewing compared to larger color monitors.

Instant photography devices

Between 1963 and 1969, Kodak exclusively supplied negatives for Polaroid instant cameras until Polaroid began manufacturing its own instant film. Kodak introduced its EK series instant cameras in 1976, followed by the Colorburst line in 1979 and the Kodamatic models in 1982. After losing a patent infringement lawsuit against Polaroid Corporation, Kodak withdrew from the instant camera market in 1986.

Image sensor technology

Kodak commenced research into CCD sensor image sensors in the early 1970s and developed the first megapixel sensor in a 2/3 inch format, which was incorporated into the Videk Megaplus Camera released in 1987. The KAF-1300 sensor—a 1.3 megapixel device—was utilized in Kodak’s initial commercial digital camera, the DCS-100, launched in 1991. The company began manufacturing CMOS image sensors starting in 2005.

In 1976, Kodak scientist Bryce Bayer secured a patent for the Bayer filter used in RGB color imaging. Later in 2007, researchers John Compton and John Hamilton at Kodak developed an enhanced filter adding white pixels alongside RGB elements to improve digital camera image quality.

Kodak divested its Image Sensor Solutions division to Platinum Equity in 2011; this unit was subsequently renamed Truesense. This sale marked a strategic realignment for Kodak and influenced its business approach and market positioning.

Floppy disks

In 1983, Kodak launched a unique 3.3 million byte floppy disk produced by DriveTec. A subsequent version followed in 1984. Kodak broadened its footprint in the floppy disk market by acquiring Verbatim in 1985, a manufacturer employing more than 2,000 people, for $175 million. This deal also included Verbatim's Data Encore division, which specialized in software copy protection for floppy disks.

Kodak withdrew from the floppy disk sector in 1990, divesting Verbatim to Mitsubishi Kasei (currently Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation), while retaining ownership of Verbatim’s optical disk operations.

Digital cameras

The Kodak DCS line, consisting of digital single-lens reflex cameras and digital camera backs based on Nikon and Canon 35mm SLR bodies, was produced throughout the 1990s and early 2000s until its discontinuation in 2005. In 2003, Kodak introduced the EasyShare series aimed at consumers who found photo sharing cumbersome, with a particular focus on female users. A notable feature was a printer dock that allowed direct printing from the camera. In April 2006, Kodak unveiled the EasyShare V610, recognized as the world’s smallest 10× optical zoom camera at less than 2.5 cm thickness.

Kodak’s initial compact digital cameras were designed and manufactured by Japan’s Chinon Industries, which Kodak Japan acquired in 2004, incorporating numerous engineers and designers into the company. By July 2006, Kodak transferred camera manufacturing and design support to Flextronics. The company ultimately ceased digital camera production in 2012.

Digital picture frames

Kodak entered the digital picture frame arena toward the end of 2000 with the Smart Picture Frame, created by Weave Innovations and exclusively licensed through Weave's StoryBox online photo service. This frame stored up to 36 images internally and connected via an analog phone line, providing users with a complimentary six-month subscription to StoryBox.

At CES in 2007, Kodak reintroduced digital frames under the EasyShare brand with four models, some equipped with Wi-Fi connectivity to access Kodak Gallery. However, as part of a strategic move away from consumer electronics, Kodak halted production of digital picture frames in 2012.

Kodak Gallery

In June 2001, Kodak acquired Ofoto, a photo-sharing and printing platform, and rebranded it as Kodak Gallery. This service enabled users to upload photos, organize albums, and order customized products such as prints, mousepads, and calendars. In March 2012, Kodak sold Kodak Gallery to Shutterfly for $23.8 million as part of its strategy to concentrate on core business areas.

Light-emitting diodes

Kodak’s research into LEDs resulted in significant advancements beginning in the 1980s, including launching the first mass-produced LED printer in 1986. Chemists Ching Wan Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Kodak developed the first viable organic light-emitting diode (OLED) in 1987. In 1999, Kodak collaborated with Sanyo to manufacture OLED displays but divested its OLED division to LG Electronics in December 2009 as part of a strategic realignment away from this technology.

Medical technology

Starting with its initial radiographic film production in 1896, Kodak expanded into clinical chemistry equipment with the FDA-approved Ektachem Analyzer launched in 1980. In 2007, Kodak sold its Health Group to Onex Corporation for $2.35 billion in cash plus potential future payments; this transaction was finalized by May 1. This sale represented a major step for Kodak to realign its business focus and improve financial outcomes.

Document imaging

Kodak's involvement in document imaging dates back to the 1920s when founder George Eastman collaborated with financial institutions to digitize checks. In 1928, the company established Recordak, a subsidiary dedicated to producing early microfilm technology. The product range expanded in 2009 with Kodak's acquisition of the scanner division from Bowe Bell & Howell. Reflecting a strategic realignment, the Document Imaging unit was transferred to Kodak Alaris in 2013.

Photocopiers and duplicators

Kodak entered the plain paper photocopier arena in 1975 by introducing the Ektaprint 100 Copier-Duplicator. By 1986, it had developed high-capacity machines such as the Ektaprint 235 and 300, capable of producing up to 6,000 copies per hour. The company strengthened its position in 1988 through the acquisition of IBM’s photocopier business. However, in 1996 Kodak divested its copier division to Danka for $684 million, marking a strategic withdrawal to concentrate on its primary business areas.

Consumer inkjet printers

Kodak initially ventured into consumer inkjet photo printers via a joint enterprise with Lexmark, launching models like the Kodak Personal Picture Maker PM100 and PM200. The company re-entered this market in 2007 with All-in-One (AiO) inkjet printers equipped with Kodacolor Technology, emphasizing affordable ink cartridges over printer sales. Despite these efforts, the printers did not achieve profitability and were a significant factor in Kodak’s 2012 bankruptcy. By 2013, Kodak exited the inkjet printer market to focus exclusively on commercial printing solutions.

Photo kiosks

The first self-service photo kiosk from Kodak appeared in 1988, followed by the introduction of the Picture Maker series in 1994 designed for digital print services. Positioned within retail outlets, these kiosks offered a digital alternative to traditional film processing and featured enhancements such as red-eye correction. The PYNK Smart Print System launched in 2010 allowed users to create photo collages on demand. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, over 100,000 units were installed worldwide. In 2013, this business segment was transferred to Kodak Alaris under its Personalized Imaging division.

Photography On Demand

After two years of development, Kodak unveiled Kodakit, an on-demand photography service platform, in early 2016 and formally introduced it at CES in January 2017. Initially aimed at consumer markets including weddings and portrait photography, Kodakit later pivoted towards high-volume commercial photography sectors such as real estate, food photography, and corporate headshots. The platform faced criticism due to its requirement that photographers surrender copyright ownership. Ultimately, due to limited market adoption, the Singapore-based subsidiary ceased operations in January 2020.

Motion picture and TV production

Kodak continues to offer its classic 8mm and Super 8 film formats that originated in the mid-20th century. During the mid-1980s, Kodak briefly ventured into professional television videotape products under the Eastman Professional Video Tape Products brand.

Formerly, Kodak owned post-production visual effects companies Cinesite (with locations in Los Angeles and London) and LaserPacific (Los Angeles). In April 2010, LaserPacific and its subsidiaries were sold to TeleCorps Holdings. Two years later, in May 2012, Cinesite was divested to Endless LLP, a British private equity firm. Additionally, Kodak sold Pro-Tek Media Preservation Services—a film storage firm based in Burbank, California—to LAC Group in October 2013.

Operations

Since 2015, Kodak has functioned through five distinct business segments: Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions, alongside Consumer and Film.

The company's main headquarters are situated in Kodak Tower in downtown Rochester. Its chief manufacturing site in the United States is located at Eastman Business Park, where film production remains active.

Subsidiaries

Kodak (Australasia) Pty Ltd
- Manufacturing was previously conducted in Coburg, Melbourne.
Kodak Canada ULC (formerly Canadian Kodak Company)
- Manufacturing operations were formerly based at Kodak Heights in Toronto.
Kodak (Xiamen) Digital Imaging Products Company
- Previously operated a manufacturing plant in Xiamen, China.
Kodak Graphic Communications
- Currently maintains a manufacturing facility in Osterode am Harz, Germany.
Kodak Limited (UK)
- Manufacturing facilities were once located in Harrow, Morley, Kirkby, and Annesley.

Kodak Teenage Film Awards

Since 1962, Kodak has partnered with the University Film Association, Council on International Nontheatrical Events, and University Film Foundation to host the annual Kodak Teenage Film Awards. This competition invites filmmakers aged 19 and under to submit works on 8mm, Super 8, or 16mm film across various age divisions. The program aims to inspire young filmmakers while reinforcing Kodak’s presence in the amateur film market.

Among distinguished recipients is animator Eric Goldberg, who earned the Grand Prize in 1974 for his Super-8 film, underscoring the awards' role in identifying promising creative talent. Jay Sumsion, director of broadcast production at KBYU-TV, achieved second place in 1971. Additionally, business leaders such as Charles S. Cohen and Carl Weingarten received Honorable Mentions, illustrating the awards' impact on future industry contributors.

The Kodak Teenage Film Awards demonstrate the company’s strategic commitment to industry development by cultivating youth involvement and enhancing brand loyalty within its target audience.

Leadership

Name	Position	Period
Henry A. Strong	President	1884 – 1919
George Eastman	President	1921 – 1925
William G. Stuber	President	1925–1934
Frank W. Lovejoy	President	1934–1941
Thomas J. Hargrave	President	1941–1952
Albert K. Chapman	President	1952–1960
William S. Vaughn	President and CEO	1960 – 1968
Louis K. Eilers	President and CEO	1969 – 1972
Robert Moyer	President	1976–1989
Gerald B. Zornow	Chairman	1970–1984
Walter A. Fallon	CEO	1972 – 1983
Colby H. Chandler	CEO	1983 – 1990
Kay R. Whitmore	CEO	1990 – 1993
George M. C. Fisher	CEO	1993 – 1999
Daniel A. Carp	CEO	2000 – 2005
Antonio M. Pérez	Chairman and CEO	2005 – 2014
Jeff Clarke	CEO	2014 – 2019
Jim Continenza	Executive chairman	2019 – present

Board of directors

As of July 2022, the board comprised:

James Continenza, serving as chairman and CEO of Kodak
Tom Golisano, founder of Paychex
Philippe Katz, executive at UECC
Katherine B. Lynch, former chief operating officer at UBS
Jason New, co-chief executive officer at Onex Credit
Darren L. Richman, co-founder of the KLIM investment group
Michael E. Selick Jr., president of SeaAgri Solutions

Scientists

Bryce Bayer, specialist in color science
Harry Coover, expert in polymer chemistry
F. J. Duarte, laser physics researcher (departed in 2006)
Marion B. Folsom, statistician
Loyd A. Jones, physicist focused on camouflage technology
Maurice Loyal Huggins, polymer science expert
Rudolf Kingslake, designer of optical systems
David MacAdam, authority in color science
Kenneth Mees, pioneer film scientist and founder of research laboratories
Perley G. Nutting, physicist and founder of the Optical Society of America (OSA)
Steven Sasson, electrical engineering innovator
Ludwik Silberstein, physicist
Steven Van Slyke, OLED researcher (departed in 2010)
Warren J. Smith, optical engineering specialist
Ching W. Tang, OLED scientist (left in 2006)
John Texter, physical chemist and materials science expert
Arthur Widmer, trailblazer in special effects and recipient of an Academy Award

Photographers

Jeannette Klute, research photographer (1918–2009)

Archive donation

In 2005, Kodak Canada entrusted its historic company archives to Ryerson University located in Toronto. The Ryerson University Library also obtained a substantial collection on photographic history from the private holdings of Nicholas M. and Marilyn A. Graver based in Rochester, New York. Established in 1909, the Kodak Archives encompass the Camera Collection, archival photographs, trade circulars, Kodak magazines, price lists, daily record logs, equipment, and various company memorabilia. These archives include materials from the Kodak Heritage Collection Museum, which was inaugurated in 1999 to commemorate Kodak Canada's centennial but was closed in 2005 alongside the shutdown of the Kodak Heights manufacturing facility in Mount Dennis, Toronto.

Patent infringement

Kodak encountered several patent disputes during its early years. While creating its initial camera model, the company compensated inventor David Houston for licensing existing patents. A major patent conflict emerged with competing film manufacturer Ansco, which had secured the nitrocellulose film patent originally granted to inventor Hannibal Goodwin in 1898 after an earlier rejection. Ansco initiated a lawsuit against Kodak for infringement in 1902; this extended legal battle concluded in 1914 when Kodak agreed to a $5 million settlement.

Anti-trust lawsuit

In 1911, federal authorities initiated an anti-trust probe into Kodak’s practices involving exclusive agreements, acquisitions of competitors, and price-fixing schemes. Although founder George Eastman cautioned against eliminating competition entirely, Kodak justified its monopolistic actions as necessary to maintain superior product quality. The inquiry resulted in a lawsuit filed in 1913 and culminated with a consent decree in 1921 mandating Kodak to halt price-fixing activities and divest certain business interests.

FIGHT

Prior to the civil rights era, Kodak employed very few African-American individuals. Between 1950 and 1964, Rochester's African-American community expanded significantly from 7,845 to approximately 40,000 residents, leading to criticisms of Kodak's exclusionary hiring policies. The civil rights organization F.I.G.H.T. (Freedom, Integration, God, Honor—Today), established in 1965 by Saul Alinsky and headed by Minister Franklin Florence, actively challenged Kodak's discriminatory employment practices. By 1967, this group successfully negotiated an agreement with Kodak to recruit 600 African-American workers through a dedicated job training initiative.

Polaroid Corporation v. Eastman Kodak Company

From the 1930s through the 1960s, Kodak and Polaroid maintained a collaborative relationship, with Polaroid obtaining film supplies from Kodak. This alliance dissolved when Polaroid began producing its own film independently and Kodak introduced its EK series instant camera in 1976. Polaroid responded by filing a patent infringement lawsuit that extended over ten years. In 1985, the court ruled in favor of Polaroid, effectively forcing Kodak to exit the instant camera business by 1986. Subsequently, in 1990, Polaroid was awarded $909 million in damages; after appeals, Kodak settled for $925 million in 1991—setting a record for the largest patent infringement settlement in U.S. history at that time.

Pollution

During the 1980s, silver and other chemical pollutants were detected around Kodak Park and adjacent areas of the Genesee River. A pipeline rupture near the park in 1989 released roughly 30,000 gallons of methylene chloride, contaminating a nearby school and causing some local families to relocate. Kodak committed $100 million toward environmental assessment and remediation efforts. In 1990, New York State imposed a $2.15 million fine on Kodak for unlawful disposal of silver-laden soil and failure to report chemical spills—marking the state's largest environmental penalty up to that point. Throughout the 1990s, Kodak remained a major contributor to air and water pollution.

In France during the same decade, an elementary school was constructed on land previously occupied by a Kodak factory in Vincennes. After three cases of pediatric cancer emerged among students, authorities initiated an investigation into potential carcinogenic contamination. The school was closed in 2001 but reopened in 2004 following inconclusive findings regarding any connection to factory pollutants.

In 2014, Kodak reached a settlement with the Environmental Protection Agency agreeing to pay $49 million for cleanup activities related to contamination at sites along the Genesee River and designated Superfund locations in New York and New Jersey.

Departure from Better Business Bureau

In 2006, Kodak notified the Better Business Bureau (BBB) serving Upstate New York that it would cease accepting or responding to consumer complaints via their channels. On March 26, 2007, the Council of Better Business Bureaus announced that Eastman Kodak had resigned its national membership amidst ongoing expulsion proceedings initiated by the CBBB board. Kodak defended its decision by stating that it directly resolved 99% of customer complaints and accused the BBB of repeatedly disseminating inaccurate information about the company.

Pharmaceuticals loan

On July 28, 2020, the Trump administration revealed a $765 million loan extended to Kodak aimed at producing pharmaceutical ingredients to replenish national stockpiles depleted during the COVID-19 crisis and reduce dependence on international suppliers. This represented a significant strategic shift for Kodak, which had no prior background in pharmaceutical manufacturing. The loan was facilitated through the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation under presidential trade advisor Peter Navarro’s coordination. Following this announcement, Kodak's stock price soared by as much as 2,189% on the New York Stock Exchange.

The New York Times disclosed that CEO Jim Continenza received 1.75 million stock options one day before the loan was announced, with some options immediately exercisable. The loan was subsequently paused due to an SEC investigation into potential insider trading by Kodak executives and scrutiny from the funding agency’s inspector general concerning loan conditions. Despite these challenges, Continenza reaffirmed Kodak’s dedication to pharmaceutical production without relying on the loan in November 2020. By December, the DFC concluded no wrongdoing on its part had occurred. In June 2021, Continenza along with other executives were summoned to testify as part of the SEC inquiry. A class-action lawsuit filed by investors was dismissed in 2022.

Xinjiang social media controversy

In July 2021, Kodak took down an Instagram image depicting Xinjiang, captured by photographer Patrick Wack, who characterized the area as an "Orwellian dystopia" in relation to the persecution of Uyghurs in China. Subsequently, Kodak clarified that its Instagram account is not intended to serve as a venue for political discussion and highlighted its "close collaboration with various [Chinese] governmental agencies."

Notes

Bibliography

External links

Kodak Camera Catalog Information at Historic Camera.
Kodak Publications at Monroe County Genealogy
Cercle des Conservateurs de l’Image Latente, an archive preserving Kodak-Pathé materials curated by former employees