Mingxing

Mingxing Film Company
Company type	Private limited company
Industry	Film production
Founded	1922
Founder	Zhang Shichuan, Zheng Zhengqiu, Zhou Jianyun, Zheng Zhegu, Ren Jinping
Defunct	1937
Fate	Halted operations following Japanese occupation of Shanghai
Headquarters	Shanghai, Republic of China
Area served	Republic of China, Southeast Asia (distribution rights)
Key people	Zhang Shichuan (deputy manager), Ding Boxiong (office manager), Ren Jinping, Zheng Zhegu, Zheng Zhengqiu, Zhou Jianyun
Products	Narrative films, newsreels, animated shorts, documentary footage
Number of employees	Not specified
Parent	None

Adapted from the English Wikipedia article Mingxing, available under CC BY-SA 4.0Updated 30 November 20252 sources

The Mingxing Film Company (), also referred to as the Star Motion Picture Production Company, was active in the Republic of China between 1922 and 1937. Established by pioneering figures such as director Zhang Shichuan, playwright Zheng Zhengqiu, and critic Zhou Jianyun, Mingxing initially focused on producing comedy films that garnered only modest audience interest. When the company faced financial difficulties in 1923, it channeled its remaining funds into the production of Orphan Rescues Grandfather, which became a significant commercial triumph, allowing the company to expand its operations and attract new talent.

During the mid-1920s, Mingxing expanded by acquiring additional studio facilities and completed its first public stock offering, which supported rapid growth amid increasing market competition. The studio adapted well-known novels into films, with Lonely Orchid (1926) emerging as a notable silent film success. The company further broadened its portfolio by venturing into wuxia genre productions such as The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (1928) and embraced sound film technology with Sing-Song Girl Red Peony (1931). By the early 1930s, Mingxing had become one of Shanghai’s leading studios alongside Tianyi Film Company and United Photoplay Service.

Nevertheless, the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, including the 1932 January 28 incident, combined with economic challenges, caused substantial losses throughout the decade. Despite successful releases like Twin Sisters (1934) and initiatives to bring in fresh writers, Mingxing was unable to regain its footing and ultimately halted operations following the Japanese occupation of Shanghai in 1937. Throughout its lifespan, Mingxing produced a total of 174 narrative films, as well as newsreels, animated shorts, and documentary footage.

Background

Cinema arrived in China in 1896, initially showcasing one-reelers before progressing to full-length features. In 1905, Fengtai Photographic Studio created Dingjun Mountain, a short film starring Peking opera performer Tan Xinpei, recognized as China’s earliest domestically produced film. Collaborating with American Benjamin Brodsky, Zhang Shichuan co-founded the Asia Film Company, which produced documentaries and The Difficult Couple (1913), acknowledged as China’s first short fictional film. The production of short films increased during the late 1910s, coinciding with growing public enthusiasm for this new visual medium known as "electric shadowplay" (). Following the success of Yan Ruisheng (1921), a feature-length crime drama, multiple companies were launched in Shanghai to tap into this burgeoning industry.

Before forming Mingxing, all its founders were already culturally engaged. Zhang Shichuan enlisted playwright Zheng Zhengqiu to write The Difficult Couple, fostering a close collaboration throughout the 1910s. Together with Zheng Zhegu and Zhou Jianyun, they operated Xinmin Library during the late 1910s, publishing periodicals such as Yaofeng Monthly () and Emancipation Pictorial. Zhou Jianyun contributed significant drama criticism, including a key 1918 work on drama theory. Both he and Zheng Zhegu were prominent members of the Eternal Memory Society, a Peking opera enthusiasts’ group that also included Ren Jinping.

Founding and Capital Acquisition

Towards the end of 1921, during a period of stock market prosperity, Zhang Shichuan and several partners established the Mutual Stock and Produce Exchange Company. Following the subsequent market collapse, they redirected their investments into a safer industry: film production. By February 1922, the former stock exchange premises on Guizhou Road in Shanghai were repurposed as the headquarters for Mingxing Film Company. Zhang Shichuan took on the role of deputy manager, Ding Boxiong oversaw office management, while key positions were occupied by Ren Jinping, Zheng Zhegu, Zheng Zhengqiu, and Zhou Jianyun.

The initial fundraising campaign aimed to secure 100,000 yuan in capital by having five founders each contribute 10,000 yuan and issuing 20,000 shares priced at 5 yuan apiece. Efforts to attract investors included hosting gala events for local journalists and producing a dedicated edition of Motion Picture Review. Additional interest was cultivated through the Mingxing Shadowplay School under Zheng Zhengqiu’s leadership, which provided education in filmmaking techniques.

Despite these initiatives, enthusiasm from potential investors remained modest, as many perceived the entertainment sector as high-risk. The acting school enrolled 87 students (including 17 women), but only 34 successfully completed the program. Furthermore, Ding Boxiong and several preparatory staff departed within months. Ultimately, Mingxing operated with its five founders and approximately 10,000 yuan in capital—though estimates varied—with Zhang Shichuan’s wife recalling the lower amount retrospectively.

Initial Phase

Mingxing’s first production was a newsreel capturing French General Joseph Joffre’s arrival in Shanghai on 8 March 1923, which was shown locally in April. Concurrently, the company began producing narrative films directed by Zhang Shichuan with scripts by Zheng Zhengqiu. Studio space was leased from Italian businessman Enrico Lauro, while equipment was borrowed from a British contact. Acting roles were filled by Zheng Zhegu, Zheng Zhengqiu, and graduates from Mingxing’s acting academy.

The company’s initial fiction films—The King of Comedy Visits Shanghai and Labourer's Love—were slapstick comedies screened together at the Olympic Theatre on 5 October 1922. These titles, along with the later comedy Havoc in a Bizarre Theatre, failed to attract significant audiences.

Confronted with financial difficulties, Mingxing pivoted with its fourth production—and first feature-length film—Zhang Xinsheng, a drama inspired by a true patricide case. While retaining much of the original cast and crew, this film adopted a more realistic style that included graphic autopsy scenes which startled viewers. This shift resulted in improved ticket sales and generated revenue totaling 6,000 yuan.

Nevertheless, this income was insufficient for sustainable operations. Zhang Shichuan proceeded to produce Orphan Rescues Grandfather (1923), a family drama emphasizing the value of education. Featuring new talent such as Wang Hanlun—discovered during earlier productions for her contemporary outlook—the film took eight months to complete. Zhou Jianyun even pawned his wife’s jewelry to secure final funding. Premiering on 21 December 1923, it achieved remarkable success with a 100-day run in Shanghai and sold distribution rights across Southeast Asia for 8,000 yuan.

Initial Growth

Following the success of Orphan Rescues Grandfather, Mingxing experienced swift growth. The company relocated its headquarters to the Shanghai French Concession and expanded its team by hiring professionals such as a cinematographer and a make-up artist. Additionally, the affiliated film school began enrolling numerous students without charging tuition fees. To enhance production quality, Mingxing invested in cutting-edge foreign equipment, including cameras, printers, mercury-vapor lamps, and carbon-arc lighting. The studio also attracted actresses by offering salaries between 50 and 300 yuan and brought on board directors like Hong Shen to strengthen its creative team.

Mingxing acquired a four-mu () parcel on Hart Road within the Shanghai International Settlement, where it constructed a glass-enclosed studio that became operational by early 1925. This facility allowed filming independent of natural light or weather conditions. Furthermore, the company took over the former Shenjiang Stage, transforming it into the Palace Theatre cinema, which showcased first-run films from April 1925 until 1933. By the end of the 1920s, Mingxing had expanded its cinema holdings to include six additional venues. After launching its initial public offering in May 1925, Mingxing transitioned into a private limited company. Founder Ren Jinping secured funding from notable Ningbo merchants such as Fang Jiaobo and Lao Jingxiu.

During this phase of expansion, Mingxing produced ten films between 1924 and 1925. Prominent works like Jade Pear Spirit and The Poor Children starred leading actress Wang Hanlun, who later departed due to disagreements over salary. Following her exit, the studio depended on actresses including Xuan Jinglin, Yang Naimei, and Zhang Zhiyun to draw audiences; however, most of these performers enjoyed only short-lived fame. The majority of Mingxing’s productions in this era concentrated on melodrama themes.

Challenges and Setbacks

In 1926, a backlash against crime-themed films such as Yan Ruisheng and Zhang Xinsheng prompted the Ministry of Education to impose stricter censorship regulations, mandating more restrained approaches to filmmaking. Around this period, Mingxing lost two of its founders: Zheng Zhegu passed away in 1925 during the production of The Last Conscience, while Ren Jinping—disillusioned by Mingxing’s distribution of his debut film A New Family (1925)—departed in 1926 to establish Xinren Film Company.

At the same time, competition intensified as several new Shanghai-based film studios emerged between 1925 and 1926; although many failed, some proved sustainable. Among them was the Tianyi Film Company, founded in 1925 by the Shaw brothers—Run Run, Runje, Runde, and Runme—which gained success with costume dramas and wuxia films. Despite growing rivalry, Mingxing sought cooperative ventures; in June 1926 it co-founded Liuhe Distribution Company alongside other studios to promote Shanghai films throughout the Republic of China. This alliance dissolved three years later, leading Mingxing to create its own distribution division.

Initially concentrating on family-oriented dramas, Mingxing contracted well-known Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies author Bao Tianxiao for a monthly fee of 100 yuan with an expectation of delivering one screenplay per month. In August 1925, Bao licensed his novels Lonely Orchid and Fallen Plum Blossoms; the adaptation of Lonely Orchid, released in February 1926, became one of the silent era’s most successful Chinese films. By late 1926, Mingxing operated four production teams headed by Zhang Shichuan, Zheng Zhengqiu, Hong Shen, and Bu Wancang. The company remained profitable despite limited investor enthusiasm, managed two studios, and relocated to new offices on Route Doumer in 1927.

Identifying opportunities within the wuxia genre, Zhang Shichuan adapted Xiang Kairan’s novel Chronicle of the Strange Roving Knights into a motion picture in 1927. The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple, featuring newly signed Tianyi star Hu Die in her breakout role, achieved major commercial success. From its premiere through 1931, Mingxing produced seventeen feature-length sequels to this film series. The studio’s annual output increased from eleven films in 1926 to sixteen by 1929 and boasted a roster of twenty-six stars—approximately half being women.

Politics and sound

Beyond Shanghai, the political environment of the Republic of China underwent significant transformation as the Kuomintang (KMT) government and the National Revolutionary Army successfully ended warlord dominance through the Northern Expedition during 1927–1928. Mingxing embraced these developments by creating newsreels spotlighting KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek. The Nanjing administration introduced film regulations that required the use of Mandarin, prohibited supernatural and pornographic content, and limited wuxia themes. Without a centralized national film enterprise, the KMT depended on studios such as Mingxing to disseminate its messages, with the company producing government speeches and documentaries focused on infrastructure projects. Several KMT affiliates, including Pan Gongzhan and Lin Kanghou, held positions on Mingxing’s board of directors.

During this period, American sound films imported into China gained traction despite the limited availability of sound technology in cinemas. Aiming to capitalize on this growing trend, Mingxing launched production of Sing-Song Girl Red Peony in 1931. This undertaking required a larger crew, including Mandarin language coaches, and involved renting Pathé’s recording studios in Shanghai. The budget ballooned to 120,000 yuan—approximately six times the cost of a standard film—leading director Zhang Shichuan to resort to opium use to cope with the pressure.

Although Sing-Song Girl Red Peony achieved commercial success, it utilized sound-on-disc technology which was soon eclipsed by Tianyi and Huaguang’s adoption of sound-on-film systems. Mingxing invested heavily—around 200,000 yuan—in acquiring new equipment that ultimately fell short of expectations. The company continued producing silent films and initiated an adaptation of Zhang Henshui's novel Fate in Tears and Laughter, allocating a budget of 1.2 million yuan and conducting two months of location filming in Beijing. Its 1932 premiere encountered legal disputes from competitor Dahua Film Company over copyright infringement; however, through negotiations involving legal proceedings and protection from gang leaders Huang Jinrong and Du Yuesheng, Mingxing secured the right to screen its version.

Financial floundering and communist cinema

Obtaining authorization to exhibit Fate in Tears and Laughter compelled Mingxing to pay an additional 100,000 yuan in protection fees and compensate Dahua for potential losses. The film received lukewarm responses both critically and commercially. The January 28 incident resulted in the destruction of numerous cinemas as well as parts of Mingxing’s studio facilities. Meanwhile, Japan’s occupation of Manchuria diminished market opportunities amid a recession driven by ongoing conflict. New competitors such as the United Photoplay Service (UPS) entered the scene. By late 1932, Mingxing was burdened with substantial debt and struggled to meet payroll obligations; creditors including the American Commercial and Exchange Bank initiated lawsuits over unpaid loans.

In response to financial difficulties, Mingxing increased its output and sought fresh talent. Capitalizing on a KMT government commission to produce travel documentaries along major railway lines—which provided free lodging and transportation—Mingxing developed three screenplays in 1933 that required extensive location shooting. A team comprising 40 actors and crew members produced silent films titled A Feather on Mount Tai, Go Northwest, and Romance on Mount Hua (all released in 1934). Through Zhou Jianyun’s connection with Qian Xingcun, leftist writers such as Xia Yan and Zheng Baiqi were recruited to address criticisms regarding the lack of serious thematic content. Between 1933 and 1934, Mingxing produced more than 40 films, maintaining silent film production until 1935.

Final phase and shutdown

The 1934 release of Twin Sisters, featuring Hu Die and Xuan Jinglin, generated 200,000 yuan through distribution both domestically and abroad, which helped stabilize Mingxing's finances. In April 1934, the company underwent restructuring into a three-level organization and launched an animation division led by the Wan brothers. In 1935, Zhou Jianyun accompanied actors to the Soviet Union for the first Moscow International Film Festival and then traveled to Europe to study film production techniques.

Despite these efforts, financial difficulties continued, exacerbated by Zheng Zhengqiu’s passing in July 1935. This event revealed conflicts between creative head Zhang Shichuan and financial manager Zhou Jianyun. Attempts to recover included moving to new studio facilities near Shanghai’s Maple Grove Bridge in 1936 after a year-long lease of different premises. In August 1935, one-third of the workforce was dismissed, while a 160,000 yuan loan from the state-owned Bank of Communications financed the July 1936 establishment of Studio II. This initiative aimed to boost output and separate Zhang’s creative operations from Zhou’s financial management; however, Studio II ceased operations after seven months, producing only four films.

With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Japanese forces seized Shanghai at the end of 1937. Mingxing’s film production nearly halted as its studios were repurposed as military barracks by occupying troops. Although Zhang Shichuan endeavored to restart production and premiered films completed before the occupation in 1938, the company ultimately did not endure. On January 13, 1939, a fire destroyed Mingxing’s warehouse; meanwhile, rival studios Tianyi and UPS also shut down. Zhou Jianyun later relocated to Hong Kong where he founded several short-lived studios before retiring in 1949. Zhang Shichuan took a position as production director at the Japanese-established China United Film Production Company but was subsequently accused of collaboration.

Legacy

Early Chinese filmmaking was frequently conducted on a modest scale—Yan Ruisheng was produced by students—and some companies functioned as branches of established enterprises such as the Commercial Press. Film scholar Zhang Zhen characterizes Mingxing as "the first comprehensive Chinese film company." By 1933, Mingxing stood among Shanghai’s largest studios alongside Tianyi and UPS. Its film Labourer's Love (1922) remains the oldest fully preserved Chinese movie, while Sing-Song Girl Red Peony (1931) is often recognized as China’s earliest sound film, although this claim is debated due to differing sound technologies employed by contemporaries like Tianyi.

In the People's Republic of China, official cinema accounts highlight how the arrival of left-leaning writers such as Qian Xingcun and Xia Yan in 1933 transformed Mingxing into a "center for leftist film production." Taiwanese historian Du Yunzhi also observed these progressive tendencies. This stance was perilous under the KMT regime, which opposed Chinese Communist Party influence in cinema and had violently suppressed communists in 1927. To avoid censorship, communist-affiliated writers concealed their identities on scripts. Due to political oppression and threats, leftist screenwriters departed Mingxing in 1934; some later returned, including former staff from the defunct Diantong Film Company.

Style

The founders of Mingxing held contrasting perspectives regarding the role of cinema: Zheng Zhengqiu viewed film as a medium for societal transformation, whereas Zhang Shichuan placed greater emphasis on commercial success and audience entertainment. Zhang advocated for aligning productions with popular tastes to maximize viewer enjoyment.^[1] As a result, Zheng championed films with educational objectives from the outset, while Zhang leaned toward projects driven by market demand. Subsequent filmmakers such as Hong Shen, who studied under George Pierce Baker in the United States, introduced realist approaches inspired by dramatists Eugene O'Neill and Henrik Ibsen.

Mingxing frequently adapted literary works into films, including titles like Lonely Orchid (1926) and its 1935 remake, Fallen Plum Blossoms (1927), as well as Fate in Tears and Laughter (1932). Additional adaptations encompassed The Phoenix Knight (1927) by Li Hanqiu and Taohua Lake (1930). Beyond novel adaptations, the studio showcased contributions from prominent authors such as Cheng Xiaoqing, Tian Han, Xu Banmei, and Chen Lengxue. Elements of Peking opera were also integral to productions like A Passionate Actress (1926) and Resurrection of Conscience (1926),^[2] with four opera numbers featured in Song Song Girl Red Peony.

Themes

Mingxing’s earliest films were predominantly slapstick comedies, a genre that accounted for nearly half of Chinese cinema output in 1922. The King of Comedy portrayed a Charlie Chaplin imitator navigating the peculiarities of Shanghai life, while Labourer's Love blended romantic comedy with visual gags referencing contemporary popular culture. Havoc in a Bizarre Theatre followed a chef’s humorous ascent to fame.

After the triumph of Orphan Rescues Grandfather (1923), Mingxing pivoted towards family melodramas that emphasized moral instruction and public education, thereby aligning commercial interests with social responsibility. These narratives frequently illustrated karmic retribution, rewarding righteousness and punishing wrongdoing—a motif later embraced by studios such as Shenzhou.

Following the 1928 blockbuster The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple, Mingxing produced approximately 27 costume dramas and martial arts films, incorporating sophisticated techniques like the Williams shot and wire-flying to intensify fight sequences. This success fueled the growth of the wuxia subgenre among Shanghai film companies; however, critics condemned it as both feudalistic and obscene, culminating in its prohibition by the KMT government in 1931.

With the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1931, Mingxing shifted towards nationalist-themed productions such as Iron Youth (1931) and Resurrecting the National Spirit (1932). Throughout that decade, socially aware films addressing contemporary challenges maintained prominence. Significant examples include Wild Torrent, tackling Yangtze River flooding and receiving acclaim from both leftist intellectuals and the KMT, alongside The Uprising (1934), depicting miners’ revolt against capitalist exploitation, and 24 Hours in Shanghai, which spotlighted urban destitution.

Mingxing also ventured into self-referential cinematic themes. The 1922 film The King of Comedy Visits Shanghai highlighted the studio and its associated film school, drawing inspiration from Mack Sennett’s Keystone Studios. Meanwhile, A Passionate Actress (1926) explored various aspects of celebrity life, and An Amorous History of the Silver Screen (1931) offered a semi-autobiographical tale tracing a protagonist’s journey from prostitution to stardom in film. This work demonstrated Mingxing’s pioneering use of lighting techniques, set design, and special effects—earning it recognition as a "magic workshop of virtual reality."

Partial filmography

Throughout a span of over fifteen years, Mingxing was responsible for producing 174 narrative films, comprising 128 silent films and 46 sound films. The primary directors included Zhang Shichuan, who directed 69 films, and Zheng Zhengqiu with 55. Other significant contributors were Cheng Bugao with 37 films, Xu Xinfu who directed 11, and Hong Shen with 10. Only twenty-four feature-length films remain today, either fully or partially preserved. In addition to feature films, the studio also produced five short animated works, along with newsreels and documentary films. Among their most notable titles are: