Nashville sit-ins

Nashville Sit-Ins

The Nashville sit-ins, conducted from February 13 through May 10, 1960, represented a significant nonviolent protest aimed at dismantling racial segregation at lunch counters within downtown Nashville, Tennessee. This initiative, organized by the Nashville Student Movement alongside the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, gained recognition for its early achievements and strict adherence to principles of disciplined nonviolent resistance. It formed a key part of the wider sit-in movement that emerged throughout the southern United States following the precedent set by the Greensboro sit-ins in North Carolina.

Throughout the duration of the campaign, activists staged numerous sit-ins at various retail establishments in Nashville’s central commercial district. More than 150 students faced arrest after refusing police orders to leave these segregated lunch counters. Legal defense was provided by a team of thirteen attorneys led by Z. Alexander Looby. On April 19, Looby’s residence was targeted in a bombing attack; fortunately, he was unharmed. That same day, a crowd exceeding 3,000 individuals marched to City Hall to demand action from Mayor Ben West regarding the rising violence. When questioned about his stance on desegregating Nashville’s lunch counters, Mayor West publicly affirmed his support for integration. Following negotiations between protest leaders and business proprietors, an agreement was reached in early May. Subsequently, on May 10, six downtown establishments began serving black patrons at their lunch counters for the first time.

While this initial effort successfully integrated lunch counters in Nashville’s downtown area, activism including sit-ins, picketing, and other protests persisted against segregated facilities in the city until the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which legally abolished segregation nationwide. Numerous participants in the Nashville sit-ins later emerged as prominent figures within the broader Civil Rights Movement.

Background

A sign stating "We Cater to White Trade Only"

A 1938 photograph of a restaurant window sign in Lancaster, Ohio

Main article: Racial segregation in the United States

The 1896 ruling by the United States Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson affirmed the legality of racial segregation through the principle of "separate but equal". This verdict paved the way for widespread implementation of Jim Crow laws across the nation. These statutes required or permitted segregation in nearly every public domain and facilitated systemic racial discrimination, particularly in the southern United States.

In Nashville, as in many Southern urban centers, African Americans endured significant disadvantages under Jim Crow segregation. They were consigned to poorly funded educational institutions, excluded from numerous public facilities, faced limited opportunities for skilled labor, and confronted persistent discrimination from the white population.

Although opposition to Jim Crow laws in Nashville began earnestly as early as 1905, it was not until 1958, with the establishment of the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, that a concerted movement towards dismantling segregation was initiated by Nashville’s African American community.

Precursors and organization

Template:Quote box The Reverend Kelly Miller Smith, pastor at First Baptist Church on Capitol Hill, founded the Nashville Christian Leadership Council (NCLC). This group functioned as an extension of Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and aimed to advance civil rights for African Americans through peaceful civil disobedience. Smith maintained that peaceful demonstrations would garner greater sympathy from White Americans than pursuing change via courts or violent means.

Between March 26 and 28, 1958, the NCLC conducted its inaugural workshop focused on nonviolent methods to confront segregation. The sessions were led by James Lawson, who had acquired expertise in nonviolent resistance during his missionary work in India. Subsequent workshops primarily attracted students from Fisk University, Tennessee A&I (later Tennessee State University), American Baptist Theological Seminary (later American Baptist College), and Meharry Medical College. Among those who participated were future prominent Civil Rights leaders including Marion Barry, James Bevel, Bernard Lafayette, John Lewis, Diane Nash, and C. T. Vivian.

During these meetings, participants resolved that their initial campaign would focus on downtown lunch counters. Although African Americans were permitted to shop at downtown retail stores, they were prohibited from dining at their lunch counters. The group identified these establishments as strategic targets due to their high visibility, ease of access, and clear illustration of everyday racial injustices faced by black Southerners.

In late 1959, James Lawson and members of the NCLC’s projects committee approached department store owners Fred Harvey and John Sloan with a request to serve African American customers at their lunch counters voluntarily. Both proprietors refused, expressing concerns that accommodating black patrons would result in greater business losses than gains. Subsequently, students initiated reconnaissance efforts for sit-in protests. The first attempt occurred at Harveys Department Store downtown on November 28, followed by Cain-Sloan on December 5. Small groups purchased goods before sitting at lunch counters and requesting service to gauge reactions and resistance levels. While service was denied at both locations, responses differed notably: Harveys staff responded with unexpected courtesy whereas Cain-Sloan personnel reacted with hostility. These initial reconnaissance actions were discreet and went unreported by local newspapers.

Full-scale demonstrations

Before Nashville's students could finalize their plans, developments in other locations intensified the urgency of their movement. In early February 1960, a modest sit-in in Greensboro, North Carolina, rapidly expanded, drawing over eighty participants by its third day. While similar protests had occurred previously in various cities, this particular demonstration was the first to garner significant media coverage and widespread public attention. When Lawson's group reconvened the following Friday evening, approximately 500 new volunteers joined the cause. Despite adult organizers like Lawson advocating for postponement, student leaders were adamant that immediate action was necessary.

Map of downtown Nashville showing locations of 10 sit-in demonstrations. Five were located along 5th Avenue between Union and Church, others are within three blocks of 5th and Union.

Downtown lunch counters targeted during the sit-ins included: 1. S. H. Kress; 2. McLellans; 3. Woolworths; 4. Harveys; 5. Walgreens; 6. Grants; 7. Cain-Sloan; 8. Greyhound; 9. Trailways; 10. Moon-McGrath

The inaugural large-scale sit-in took place on Saturday, February 13, 1960. Around 12:30 pm, a group of 124 students—predominantly African American—entered downtown Woolworths, S. H. Kress, and McLellan stores to request service at the lunch counters. When employees declined to serve them, the students remained seated for two hours before departing peacefully.

On the Monday following this initial action, the Baptist Minister's Conference of Nashville, representing 79 congregations, unanimously endorsed the student movement, lending substantial support from the city's black religious community. Spiritual leaders urged individuals of conscience to boycott segregated downtown businesses, a call that resonated strongly within Nashville’s black population and inflicted economic pressure on these merchants.

The second sit-in unfolded on Thursday, February 18, with over 200 students entering Woolworths, S. H. Kress, McLellan's, and Grants stores. The lunch counters were promptly shut down by management. After sitting for roughly thirty minutes without incident, the students left voluntarily. Two days later, on February 20, about 350 participants expanded their protests to include Walgreens alongside the previous four stores. As they occupied seats at the counters, groups of white youths assembled inside several establishments to observe and jeer. Police maintained surveillance at all five locations but no violence ensued. The demonstrators stayed nearly three hours before moving to a mass meeting at First Baptist Church.

A man is curled up on the floor protecting his head with his hands while his attacker hovers over him and a crowd of bystanders watch.

On February 27, several sit-in participants including Paul Laprad (pictured) were assaulted by bystanders.

Over the subsequent week, tensions escalated as sit-ins spread to additional cities and race riots erupted nearby in Chattanooga. On February 27, Nashville students staged a fourth sit-in at Woolworths, McLellan's, and Walgreens stores once again. White youths gathered inside to mock and harass demonstrators; however, police were notably absent this time. Several protesters were physically attacked in McLellan's and Woolworths—some forcibly removed from seats and beaten, with one pushed down a staircase. Upon police arrival, assailants dispersed without any arrests made. Authorities then ordered demonstrators to vacate all three locations; when they refused, arrests followed amid applause from onlookers. Ultimately, eighty-one students faced charges including loitering and disorderly conduct.

The arrests triggered extensive media attention for the sit-in campaign—national television networks covered the events while Nashville’s two daily newspapers featured front-page stories alongside an Associated Press report. Students generally welcomed media exposure as beneficial to their cause, particularly when it highlighted their commitment to peaceful protest.

Additional sit-ins occurred during the next two months resulting in further arrests and attacks against participants; over 150 students were detained in total. Throughout these protests, student activists adhered strictly to nonviolent discipline. Their established code of conduct became a template for similar demonstrations elsewhere:

"Do not strike back or curse if abused. Do not laugh out loud. Do not engage in conversation with floor walkers. Remain seated until your leader grants permission to leave. Avoid blocking store entrances or aisles inside. Always be courteous and friendly. Sit upright facing the counter at all times. Report serious incidents promptly to your leader. Politely refer inquiries to your leader as well. Remember the teachings of Jesus, Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr.—love and nonviolence are essential."

Trials and Lawson's Expulsion

The legal proceedings involving the sit-in demonstrators garnered significant attention across Nashville and its neighboring areas. On February 29, the initial day of the hearings, over 2,000 individuals gathered along the streets near the city courthouse to express their solidarity with those on trial. A legal team of thirteen attorneys, led by Z. Alexander Looby, defended the students. The trial initially fell under the jurisdiction of City Judge Andrew J. Doyle, who dismissed the loitering charges against the students before stepping down, transferring the case to Special City Judge John I. Harris.

Although the black community showed considerable support, each arrested student was found guilty of disorderly conduct and fined $50. The students declined to pay these fines and opted to serve a thirty-three-day sentence at the county workhouse instead. On behalf of the students, Diane Nash released a statement explaining their stance: "We feel that if we pay these fines we would be contributing to and supporting the injustice and immoral practices that have been performed in the arrest and conviction of the defendants."

Coinciding with the trial's commencement, a delegation of black clergy members, including James Lawson, held discussions with Mayor Ben West regarding the sit-in protests. Local media coverage of this meeting, notably a harsh editorial in the Nashville Banner branding Lawson as a "flannel-mouth agitator", brought Lawson’s activism into focus at Vanderbilt University, where he was a student in the Divinity School. The Nashville Banner, owned by Vanderbilt trustee James G. Stahlman, who was strongly opposed to integration, published distorted reports implying Lawson had encouraged others to "violate the law." When confronted by Vanderbilt’s executive committee and instructed to cease his participation in the sit-ins, Lawson refused to comply. As a result, Chancellor Harvie Branscomb expelled him immediately, and Lawson was arrested the following day. In protest, Dean J. Robert Nelson resigned from his position and, together with three colleagues, posted Lawson’s bail, while Vanderbilt faced a one-year probationary period imposed by the American Association of Theological Schools.

Biracial Committee

A man and woman review a document the man holds, with the woman pointing at a section using a pen.

Diane Nash and Kelly Miller Smith examine a prepared statement responding to the Biracial Committee's proposal for partial integration of store lunch counters.

On March 3, aiming to ease the racial tensions sparked by the sit-ins, Mayor West announced the creation of a Biracial Committee tasked with finding a resolution to the city's racial conflicts. The group included presidents from two of Nashville's black colleges, but notably excluded any representatives from the student-led movement. Over the following weeks, the committee convened multiple times and presented its recommendations on April 5. Their proposal suggested partial integration of lunch counters in the city, where each establishment would designate one area exclusively for white patrons and another section open to both white and black customers. Student leaders rejected this plan, condemning it as morally unacceptable and rooted in segregationist principles. Within a week following the report's release, sit-in protests resumed, accompanied by an intensified boycott of downtown stores.

Looby residence bombing

At approximately 5:30 a.m. on April 19, an explosive device was thrown through the front window of Z. Alexander Looby's residence in north Nashville, apparently as retaliation for his support of civil rights demonstrators. Although the blast nearly demolished the home, Looby and his wife—who were asleep in a rear bedroom—escaped unharmed. The explosion shattered over 140 windows in a nearby dormitory.

Rather than dampening protest efforts, this attack galvanized the movement. News of the bombing quickly spread through the community, and by midday nearly 4,000 individuals gathered for a silent march to City Hall to confront Mayor West. Meeting the crowd on the courthouse steps, Mayor West listened as Reverend C. T. Vivian delivered a prepared statement charging him with ignoring the ethical concerns surrounding segregation while tolerating violence and injustice. Diane Nash then questioned West directly about whether he believed racial discrimination was wrong; he affirmed that it was. She followed by asking if lunch counters should be desegregated citywide; West responded affirmatively but added that such decisions were ultimately up to individual store managers.

Coverage from Nashville’s primary newspapers highlighted different aspects of this encounter. The Tennessean focused on West’s admission supporting desegregation, whereas the Nashville Banner underscored his remark that merchants held discretion over integration decisions. These contrasting emphases mirrored each newspaper’s divergent editorial positions on civil rights. Nevertheless, both activists and local business leaders later recognized Mayor West’s response as a pivotal moment in the movement.

The day following the bombing, Martin Luther King Jr. visited Nashville to deliver remarks at Fisk University. In his address, he commended Nashville’s sit-in campaign as "the best organized and most disciplined in the South." King further expressed that his purpose was not to inspire but rather to draw inspiration from this significant local movement.

Desegregation

Following several weeks of confidential discussions between business owners and civil rights leaders, a consensus was reached in early May. The agreement stipulated that small, predetermined groups of African American patrons would be allowed to place orders at downtown lunch counters on specified days known beforehand by the merchants. Store owners would prepare their staff accordingly and instruct them to serve these customers without incident. This controlled approach was set to continue for a few weeks, after which all restrictions would be lifted and both parties would meet again to assess the outcomes. Additionally, the press was to be informed about the agreement and urged to report responsibly and avoid sensationalism.

On May 10, six downtown establishments welcomed black customers at their lunch counters for the first time. These patrons arrived in pairs or trios during the afternoon hours and were served peacefully. Concurrently, African Americans ended their six-week-long boycott of the downtown retail stores. The initiative proceeded smoothly, with lunch counters integrating successfully without further outbreaks of violence. Consequently, Nashville became the first major city in the southern United States to initiate desegregation of its public amenities.

Although the conclusion of the sit-in protests provided a temporary relief for Nashville’s civil rights advocates, systemic racism persisted throughout the city. In subsequent years, additional sit-ins, picketing, and other demonstrations targeted segregated venues such as restaurants, cinemas, public swimming pools, and more across Nashville. These efforts continued until the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed segregation in public facilities nationwide. That same year, prominent sit-in leaders including James Lawson and Kelly Miller Smith were interviewed by Robert Penn Warren for his book Who Speaks for the Negro?, where they shared reflections on their activism experiences.

Fiftieth anniversary

File:Sit-in Media Forum 02.jpg

A panel featuring John Seigenthaler (left) and James Lawson (center) discussing media portrayal of the Nashville sit-ins.

In 2010, a series of commemorative events took place to honor the 50th anniversary of the Nashville sit-ins.

• On January 20, Vanderbilt University organized a panel titled "Veterans of the Nashville Sit-ins – The Struggle Continues". The speakers included Kwame Leo Lillard and Matthew Walker Jr.
• From February 4 through May 16, the Tennessee State Museum presented an exhibition named "We Shall Not Be Moved: The 50th Anniversary of Tennessee's Civil Rights Sit-Ins".
• Tennessee State University hosted the 29th annual Conference on African American History and Culture on February 10, which featured a special tribute to the sit-ins with guest speaker Diane Nash.
• A panel discussion focusing on media coverage of the Nashville sit-ins was held at Vanderbilt University on February 12, with James Lawson and John Seigenthaler as the lead participants.
• Between February 9 and May 22, the downtown Nashville library exhibited a photography collection titled "Visions & Voices: The Civil Rights Movement in Nashville & Tennessee".
• On February 13, author and commentator Juan Williams conducted a forum addressing civil rights topics at the auditorium of the downtown Nashville library.

External links

• Nashville Sit-ins (archived April 12, 2018), Tennessee4me.org, a resource provided by the Tennessee State Museum
• American Experience – Eyes on the Prize: "Ain't Scared of Your Jails (1960–1961)", available at pbs.org
• Nashville Student Movement (1960–1964), Civil Rights Movement Archive hosted on crmvet.org