Neuralink

Neuralink Corp.

Company type	Private
Industry	Neurotechnology, Brain–computer interfaces
Founded	2016 (2016)
Founder	Elon Musk, Max Hodak, Benjamin Rapoport, Dongjin Seo, Paul Merolla, Philip Sabes, Tim Gardner, Tim Hanson, Vanessa Tolosa
Headquarters	Fremont , United States
Area served	Worldwide
Key people	Elon Musk (majority owner), Jared Birchall (former CEO, CFO, president)
Number of employees	90 (2019)
Website	neuralink.com

Neuralink Corp. is a U.S.-based company specializing in neurotechnology with a focus on developing implantable brain–computer interface (BCI) systems. Established in 2016 by Elon Musk alongside eight scientists and engineers, Neuralink officially launched its operations in March 2017. The company’s main office is located in Fremont, California, and it has announced plans to build a three-level office and manufacturing complex in Del Valle, Texas, near Tesla’s Gigafactory Texas facility.

The firm has attracted several distinguished neuroscientists from top academic institutions. By 2019, Neuralink had raised $158 million in capital—of which $100 million came from Musk—and employed about 90 personnel. It engineered a device resembling a "sewing machine" to implant ultra-fine threads (ranging from 4 to 6 μm) into brain tissue, demonstrated on laboratory rats using 1,500 electrodes. Initial human trials targeted for 2020 were postponed to 2023; as of May 2023, the company obtained U.S. FDA approval to commence human testing. On January 29, 2024, Musk announced the first successful human implant procedure with subsequent patient recovery.

The company encountered controversy due to the euthanasia of primates following medical experiments, amid reports of complications linked to implanted electrodes. In September 2024, Neuralink launched Blindsight, a project designed to partially restore vision for blind individuals who retain intact visual cortices. This initiative was granted "breakthrough" designation by the U.S. government to expedite its development. In August and September 2025, Toronto’s University Health Network conducted Canada’s inaugural Neuralink brain implant surgeries on patients with cervical spinal cord injuries—the first such operations performed outside the United States.

History

Neuralink was created in 2016 by Elon Musk together with eight scientists and engineers: Max Hodak, Benjamin Rapoport, Dongjin Seo, Paul Merolla, Philip Sabes, Tim Gardner, Tim Hanson, and Vanessa Tolosa. The founding group brought expertise spanning neuroscience, biochemistry, and robotics. In January 2017, Musk’s team secured rights to the "NeuraLink" name and prototype from Pedram Mohseni and Randolph Nudo.

In April 2017, Neuralink unveiled ambitions to develop devices aimed at treating severe brain diseases while ultimately pursuing human enhancement or transhumanism. Musk drew inspiration from the "neural lace" concept found in Iain M. Banks’ The Culture series. He characterized the neural lace as a "digital layer above the cortex," implantable through less invasive techniques than traditional brain surgery. The overarching goal is achieving "symbiosis with artificial intelligence," which Musk regards as an existential risk if left unchecked. The technology seeks to restore or enhance brain function, including repairing injuries.

Jared Birchall—head of Musk’s family office—served as CEO, CFO, and president during 2018. Although Musk retained majority ownership, he did not hold an executive position. Co-founder Benjamin Rapoport departed in 2018 due to concerns about the safety of Neuralink’s penetrating electrodes; he later founded Precision Neuroscience, which focuses on safer surface electrode approaches.

By August 2020, only three of the original scientists remained amid internal disagreements over aggressive timelines versus scientific realities. Initially headquartered in San Francisco’s Mission District alongside OpenAI, the company relocated its headquarters to Fremont, California by 2022.

In April 2021, Neuralink showcased a monkey playing "Pong" through control enabled by a wireless brain implant—a significant progression beyond prior wired neural interface demonstrations dating back to 2002.

Co-founder Max Hodak exited in May 2021; by January 2022 only two co-founders remained active. On February 8, 2024, Neuralink re-registered its corporate status from Delaware to Nevada following legal disputes related to Musk’s Tesla compensation package. In April 2025, Neuralink incorrectly identified itself as a "small disadvantaged business" in a federal filing despite having a valuation close to $9 billion.

Technology

As of 2018, Gizmodo noted that Neuralink maintained a high level of confidentiality regarding its projects. While initially aiming to establish an animal testing facility in San Francisco, the company later shifted its experimental activities to the University of California, Davis. In 2019, Neuralink introduced its inaugural prototype: a system consisting of ultra-fine probes implanted into the brain by a neurosurgical robot, integrated with a dense electronic platform designed to interpret neuronal data. This innovation builds upon prior research conducted at University of California, San Francisco and UC Berkeley.

Probes

Constructed mainly from polyimide, a material compatible with biological tissue, the probes incorporate slender conductors made of gold or platinum. The implantation process is automated via a surgical robot. Each probe contains multiple wires equipped with electrodes that detect electrical activity within the brain and interface with electronics for signal amplification and data collection. These probes can have either 48 or 96 wires, each wire hosting 32 electrodes, allowing up to 3,072 electrodes per array.

Robot

Neuralink engineered a surgical robot capable of swiftly implanting numerous flexible probes into brain tissue while minimizing damage and enhancing device longevity compared to conventional rigid probes. The robot’s insertion mechanism employs a 25 μm tungsten-rhenium needle that engages insertion loops to place individual probes through the meninges and into neural tissue. It is capable of implanting six wires—equivalent to 192 electrodes—per minute. A linear motor facilitates rapid needle withdrawal and adjustable insertion speeds, while a bent 50-μm tungsten wire functions as an axially and rotationally driven pincher. The system also integrates imaging technology to guide needle placement, provide real-time visualization, and confirm accuracy.

Electronics

Neuralink has created an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) featuring a recording system with 1,536 channels, including 256 programmable amplifiers, built-in analog-to-digital converters, and peripheral control units that serialize digitized neural signals. This technology’s objective is to convert neuronal activity into binary data to enhance comprehension and stimulation of brain functions. Presently, Neuralink’s electrodes capture signals from groups of neurons rather than single cells; however, the company anticipates that advanced algorithms could overcome this limitation despite significant computational requirements. In July 2020, Neuralink was granted FDA breakthrough device status, permitting limited human trials under regulatory oversight for medical devices.

Public compression challenge

On May 29, 2024, Elon Musk issued a public challenge aimed at resolving Neuralink’s critical issue with data transmission: achieving over 200 times lossless compression that operates efficiently in real time with low power consumption. This ambitious target has been met with skepticism by experts within the field due to the substantial technical hurdles involved in accomplishing such compression without data loss.

Animal testing and harm

Neuralink conducts device testing by surgically implanting them into the brains of live animals including monkeys and pigs. Such practices have attracted criticism from organizations like PETA. In August 2020, Neuralink showcased a live pig named Gertrude implanted with a removable coin-sized device (23 millimeters) that recorded neural activity linked to her snout’s environmental interactions. This demonstration highlighted the potential for interpreting brain signals essential for neurological treatments and brain-machine interfacing. Two additional pigs participated: one had the implant removed without adverse effects, while another served as an unimplanted control subject for health and behavior comparisons.

Between 2017 and 2020, Neuralink collaborated with University of California, Davis (UC Davis) on monkey experiments; at the partnership’s conclusion, seven monkeys remained under their care. In 2022, the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) accused Neuralink and UC Davis of mistreating monkeys by causing psychological distress, chronic infections, and suffering resulting from surgical procedures. At least 23 monkeys were involved; PCRM claimed that 15 died or were euthanized due to experimental conditions and alleged UC Davis concealed evidence of mistreatment.

Neuralink acknowledged euthanizing macaque monkeys post-experiment but refuted allegations of animal abuse. In December 2022, the company became subject to a federal investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) concerning animal welfare violations. Reports suggested that accelerated testing driven by Musk’s demand for rapid progress led to unnecessary animal suffering and fatalities. A September 2023 Wired investigation detailed primate deaths linked to complications such as paralysis, brain swelling, and infections.

Following FDA denial for human trials in 2022, Neuralink resumed pig testing addressing safety issues; some animals developed granulomas in their brains. While Neuralink could not definitively attribute these lesions to implants, it denied direct causation. A USDA inquiry in July 2023 found no violations beyond a self-reported incident from 2019; however, PCRM contested this conclusion. In October 2023, Wired reported efforts by Neuralink to obscure details concerning animal suffering. By November 2023, U.S. legislators requested that the Securities and Exchange Commission investigate whether Neuralink misrepresented information about animal deaths to investors.

On March 21, 2024, Musk announced Neuralink’s second product line—Blindsight—was operational in monkey trials at low resolution with anticipated improvements forthcoming; he denied any monkey fatalities or severe injuries caused by devices. Nevertheless, The New York Times disclosed ongoing USDA investigations into alleged mistreatment of test monkeys alongside an SEC inquiry reopened in December 2024 following correspondence from Musk posted on X. In January 2025, President Donald Trump dismissed several inspectors general including Phyllis Fong who oversaw the Agriculture Department’s probe.

Both investigations originated from complaints filed by PCRM. In December 2024, PCRM asserted that UC Davis documents revealed Neuralink’s implants resulted in serious health complications among monkeys necessitating euthanasia—conditions such as chronic infections, paralysis, cerebral edema, loss of coordination, and depression were reported. The final outcomes of these investigations remain unclear amid changes in SEC leadership. Musk continues to deny all allegations of animal mistreatment.

Human trials

Initially, the FDA declined Neuralink's 2022 request to commence human clinical trials, citing safety issues related to the device’s lithium battery, potential wire migration, and risks involved in removal. However, approval was granted in May 2023. By September of the same year, Neuralink initiated its inaugural human studies under an FDA investigational device exemption, focusing on individuals suffering from quadriplegia caused by cervical spinal cord injury or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These procedures took place at the Barrow Neurological Institute in Phoenix, Arizona.

On January 29, 2024, Elon Musk announced that Neuralink had successfully implanted its Telepathy brain–computer interface (BCI) device into a patient recovering post-surgery. As this was an early feasibility study, the company was not obligated to release comprehensive data on safety or effectiveness. In February, Neuralink provided limited implant information through a recruitment leaflet for the Precise Robotically Implanted Brain-Computer Interface (PRIME) trial. Musk later disclosed that the initial participant was able to manipulate a computer cursor purely through thought.

In March 2024, Neuralink presented its first clinical trial subject, 29-year-old Noland Arbaugh, a quadriplegic who demonstrated control over a cursor to play games such as chess and operate music software. While Arbaugh acknowledged certain imperfections in the device’s functionality, he remained optimistic about its potential. Subsequently, he reported that approximately 85% of the implant’s threads had become detached due to unforeseen brain movements. The FDA approved Neuralink’s proposed modifications addressing this complication.

By August 2024, Neuralink implanted a second participant identified as "Alex," who utilized the device to design three-dimensional models using CAD software and engage in first-person shooter games with enhanced proficiency. Unlike the initial implantation, Alex’s device was positioned nearer to the brain surface to minimize thread detachment and has not experienced such failures. Alex described the Link as a meaningful advancement toward regaining autonomy.

In November 2024, Neuralink secured Health Canada authorization for its first Canadian clinical trial (CAN-PRIME), overseen by Andres M. Lozano. As of September 2025, Elon Musk reported that 12 participants were enrolled in trials with a combined usage exceeding 2,000 days and 15,000 hours—an increase from the seven participants previously noted by the Barrow Neurological Institute.

Reception

Experts have pointed out significant technical hurdles facing Neuralink. In 2017, neurologist Thomas Oxley termed Neuralink’s progress as "exciting" but cautioned against expecting immediate breakthroughs. During an August 2020 demonstration, Musk described the device as akin to "a Fitbit implanted in your skull," a statement met with skepticism by neuroscientists and media analysts alike. MIT Technology Review observed that while the presentation aimed to generate enthusiasm, it lacked proof of efficacy for conditions such as depression or insomnia as claimed by Musk. Andrew Jackson from Newcastle University remarked that the event did not showcase any groundbreaking innovations.

Thiago Arzua of the Medical College of Wisconsin argued that Neuralink’s features were not unprecedented, referencing brain–machine interface (BMI) technology dating back over five decades and noting existing use of haptic feedback in robotic prosthetics. He characterized Neuralink’s 2020 unveiling primarily as a "stylish redesign of a BMI with increased electrode count." Similarly, Duke University’s Miguel Nicolelis challenged Neuralink’s assertions of novelty by highlighting comparable achievements from his laboratory in the early 2000s. Nicolelis also raised ethical questions regarding marketing practices and expressed concerns about patients’ willingness to consent to invasive procedures.

Several specialists have also criticized Neuralink for insufficient transparency concerning its scientific methodology, patient safety protocols, and wider implications within neurotechnology fields.

Further reading

• (whitepaper)
• Alkhouri, K. I. (2025). Neuralink’s Brain-Computer Interfaces and Their Influence on Religious and Psychological Experiences. Conatus - Journal of Philosophy, 10(1), 9–56.

External links

• – Neuralink’s presentation from July 16, 2019
• – Neuralink’s presentation dated December 1, 2022
• Andrew Huberman: "Dr. Matthew MacDougall: Neuralink & Technologies to Enhance Human Brains" (interview featuring Neuralink's chief neurosurgeon, April 2023)