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Tupolev Tu-154

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Tupolev Tu-154
Company typeAircraft model
IndustryAerospace
FoundedOctober 4, 1968; 58 years ago (1968-10-04) (maiden flight)
FounderTupolev Design Bureau
Headquarters
Russia
,
Russia
ProductsMedium-range narrow-body jet airliner

Tupolev Tu-154

The Tupolev Tu-154 (Russian: Туполев Ту-154; known by NATO as "Careless") is a three-engine, medium-range, narrow-body jet airliner that was conceived in the mid-1960s and produced by the Tupolev Design Bureau. Serving as a primary aircraft for Soviet and later Russian carriers over several decades, it accounted for half of Aeroflot's passenger traffic and its affiliates—transporting approximately 137.5 million passengers annually or covering 243.8 billion passenger-kilometers in 1990. It remained the predominant domestic airliner within Russia and other former Soviet republics until the mid-2000s. Additionally, the Tu-154 was exported to 17 airlines outside Russia and functioned as official transport for heads of state in various nations’ air forces.

This model cruises at around 850 km/h (460 kn; 530 mph) and offers a maximum range near 5,280 km (3,280 mi). Its robust design enables operations from unpaved or gravel runways with minimal ground support, making it especially suitable for harsh Arctic environments found in Russia’s northern and eastern territories—areas where many other aircraft could not reliably operate. Initially engineered for a service life of 45,000 flight hours (equivalent to 18,000 flight cycles), the Tu-154 can reach up to 80,000 hours with modernization programs. It was anticipated to remain active until 2016; however, evolving noise regulations have limited its access to Western European airspace and other regions.

Development

The Tu-154 was created to fulfill Aeroflot's demand for a replacement of the turbojet-powered Tu-104 and the turboprop models Antonov An-10 and Ilyushin Il-18. The specifications required either a payload capacity between 16 and 18 tonnes with a flight range of 2,850 to 4,000 kilometers while maintaining a cruising speed of 900 km/h, or alternatively, a payload of 5.8 tonnes with an extended range of 5,800 to 7,000 kilometers at a cruising speed of 850 km/h. Additionally, the aircraft needed to achieve a takeoff run of no more than 2,600 meters at maximum takeoff weight. In terms of design philosophy, the Tu-154 bore similarities to the British Hawker Siddeley Trident, which first took to the skies in 1962, and the American Boeing 727, which debuted in 1963. Tupolev promoted the medium-range Tu-154 concurrently with Ilyushin’s marketing efforts for its long-range Il-62. Ultimately, the Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry selected the Tu-154 as it represented the most advanced Soviet aeronautical engineering available and aligned closely with Aeroflot’s projected needs for the upcoming decades.

Initially, Sergey Yeger was appointed as the chief designer; however, in 1964 Dmitryi S. Markov succeeded him in this role. Later, in 1975, leadership transitioned to Aleksandr S. Shengardt.

The Tu-154 completed its maiden flight on October 4, 1968. Deliveries to Aeroflot commenced in 1970, with cargo (mail) operations starting in May 1971 and passenger flights beginning in February 1972. Despite announcements indicating production would cease in 2006, limited manufacturing of the Tu-154M variant continued as late as January 2009. In total, production reached 1,025 units, with 214 still operational as of December 14, 2009. The final serial Tu-154 was handed over to the Russian Defense Ministry on February 19, 2013; this aircraft featured modernized avionics, a VIP cabin configuration, and an advanced communications system. The Aviakor plant retains four incomplete airframes that could be finished if new orders are placed.

Design

File:Tu154-aviakor.jpg
Tu-154 produced for the Russian Ministry of Defence at the Aviakor facility in 2009, one of multiple airframes manufactured in the 1990s that remained unsold
File:TU-154m. Cockpit. (3926436610).jpg
Cockpit view of the Tupolev Tu-154

The Tu-154 is equipped with three turbofan engines mounted at the rear, arranged similarly to the configuration found on the Boeing 727, though it is marginally larger than its American counterpart. Both aircraft utilize an S-duct design for the central (number-two) engine. The initial model featured Kuznetsov NK-8-2 engines, which were subsequently replaced by Soloviev D-30KU-154 engines in the Tu-154M variant. Across all variants, the Tu-154 exhibits a relatively high thrust-to-weight ratio, delivering strong performance capabilities, albeit with reduced fuel efficiency—a factor that gained significance as fuel prices increased over time.

The cockpit incorporates traditional dual yoke control columns, with hydraulic systems managing flight control surfaces.

Inside, the cabin maintains a six-abreast seating arrangement but presents an oval-shaped interior with a ceiling height lower than typical Boeing and Airbus aircraft. Depending on configuration, it accommodates 128 passengers in a two-class setup, 164 in an all-economy layout, and up to 180 in a high-density arrangement. A winter configuration is also available, where some seats are removed to install a wardrobe for passenger coats. Passenger doors are smaller when compared to those on Boeing and Airbus models, and overhead luggage compartments offer limited storage capacity.

The wing design features a 35° sweepback at the quarter-chord line, similar to the British Hawker Siddeley Trident; by contrast, the Boeing 727 has a slightly lesser sweep angle of 32°. Notably, the wing incorporates anhedral (downward angle), distinguishing it from most Western low-wing airliners of that era—such as the Boeing 727—which typically have dihedral (upward angle). This anhedral design results in reduced lateral stability but enhances resistance to Dutch roll oscillations.

Heavier than its predecessor, the Soviet-built Ilyushin Il-18, the Tu-154 is fitted with robust landing gear designed to minimize ground pressure and permit operations from comparable runways. The main landing gear consists of two six-wheel bogies equipped with large low-pressure tires that retract into pods extending from the trailing edges of the wings—a characteristic Tupolev feature—alongside a two-wheel nose gear assembly. The use of soft oleo struts provides superior shock absorption over uneven airfields compared to most other airliners.

Originally intended for a three-person flight crew—comprising captain, first officer, and flight engineer—the design was soon modified to include a fourth crew member: a navigator. Although this additional workstation was somewhat constrained by initial design limitations, it was incorporated into production models. With modernization and retirement of older Soviet-era aircraft, navigator roles have become obsolete.

The most recent variant, the Tu-154M-100 introduced in 1998, incorporates advanced avionics such as an NVU-B3 Doppler navigation system, triple autopilot enabling automatic instrument landing system approaches compliant with ICAO category II weather minimums, autothrottle functionality, Doppler drift and speed measurement system (DISS), and a "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite. A stability and control augmentation system enhances manual handling characteristics. Modern upgrades typically include updated TCAS, GPS, and other avionics primarily sourced from American or European manufacturers.

Early Tu-154 models cannot be retrofitted to comply with current Stage III noise standards and are thus prohibited from operating in airspace enforcing these regulations—such as within the European Union. However, the Tu-154M's D-30 engines can be equipped with hush kits to meet noise requirements.

Variants

File:RIAN archive 498003 TU154 serial passenger aircraft (cropped).jpg
Aeroflot Tu-154
File:Tupolev Tu-154B-1, Perm Airlines AN0109452.jpg
Perm Airlines Tu-154B-1
File:Ural Airlines Tupolev Tu-154B-2 Dvurekov-1.jpg
Ural Airlines Tu-154B-2
File:Tupolev Tu-154M, Iran Air Tours JP6511800.jpg
Iran Air Tours Tu-154M

Numerous versions of this aircraft have been produced. Similar to its Western equivalent, the Boeing 727, a number of Tu-154s have been fitted with hush kits, and some have been converted into cargo planes.

Tu-154
Production of the original Tu-154 commenced in 1970, with its inaugural passenger flight occurring on 9 February 1972. This model was equipped with Kuznetsov NK-8-2 turbofan engines and accommodated 164 passengers. Approximately 42 units were manufactured.
Tu-154A
The initial enhancement over the base Tu-154, the A variant entered production in 1974. It featured additional fuel tanks in the center wing section and extra emergency exits. Engine power was increased by adopting the Kuznetsov NK-8-2U turbofans. Other improvements included automated controls for flaps, slats, and stabilizers, along with upgraded avionics. The maximum takeoff weight reached 94,000 kg (207,000 lb). Seating configurations varied widely to meet domestic and international requirements, ranging from 144 to 152 passengers across 15 different interiors. A distinguishing feature is the shape of the fin-to-tail junction spike—a broad bullet shape on the A model versus a slender spike on the original.[1]
Tu-154B
Due to wing fatigue issues in earlier models, a reinforced wing design was introduced with the Tu-154B in 1975. This variant also incorporated an extra fuselage fuel tank and additional emergency exits at the tail section. The maximum takeoff weight increased to 98,000 kg (216,000 lb). Aeroflot prioritized higher passenger capacity to reduce operating expenses; therefore, spreading costs over more seats was essential given the unchanged NK-8-2U engines.[2] Its autopilot met ICAO Category II standards for automatic landings. Many earlier Tu-154 and Tu-154A aircraft were retrofitted with this stronger wing design. Maximum takeoff weight was also adjusted to 96,000 kg (212,000 lb) for these conversions. A total of 111 units were built.
Tu-154B-1
Developed for Aeroflot to boost earnings on domestic flights, this model accommodated up to 160 passengers. It featured minor updates including changes to fuel systems, avionics, air conditioning, and landing gear components. Production ran from 1977 to 1978 with 64 aircraft delivered.
Tu-154B-2
Representing a slight upgrade over the B-1 variant, this model was designed for rapid conversion between a 160-seat layout and a denser 180-seat configuration by removing the galley—a process taking approximately two and a half hours.[3] Some earlier B models were modified accordingly. The maximum takeoff weight rose to 98,000 kg (216,000 lb), later increasing further to 100,000 kg (220,000 lb). Around 311 units were produced, including versions tailored for VIP use. A few remain operational.
Tu-154S
This cargo-specific version of the Tu-154B featured a reinforced floor structure and a forward cargo door on the left side of the fuselage. It could transport nine Soviet PAV-3 pallets with a maximum payload capacity of 20,000 kg (44,000 lb). Although initially planned for twenty conversions, only nine were completed—two from original Tu-154s and seven from Tu-154Bs. After testing in the early 1980s, it received approval for regular service in 1984 but had all been retired by 1997.[4]
Tu-154M
The most extensively upgraded versions—Tu-154M and Tu-154M Lux—first took flight in 1982 and entered full-scale production starting in 1984. They are powered by more efficient Soloviev D-30KU-154 turbofans combined with aerodynamic enhancements that significantly reduced fuel consumption and extended range while lowering operational expenses. These models replaced triple-slotted flaps with double-slotted ones featuring an additional intermediate setting at 36 degrees (alongside previous positions at 15, 28, and 45 degrees), which helped decrease approach noise levels. The auxiliary power unit was repositioned among various other improvements. Maximum takeoff weights initially rose to 100,000 kg (220,000 lb), then to 102,000 kg (225,000 lb), with some certified up to 104,000 kg (229,000 lb). Approximately 320 units were produced before mass production ended in 2006; however, limited assembly continued into early 2009 using existing components rather than new airframes.[5] Chinese Tu-154MD variants used for electronic intelligence carry large synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) installations beneath their fuselage.[6]Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name
Tu-154M-LK-1
This specialized trainer aircraft was adapted from a VIP salon version to prepare cosmonauts for piloting the Soviet reusable spacecraft Buran—the USSR’s counterpart to the US Space Shuttle. The choice of the Tu-154 was due to its ability to simulate Buran’s steep descent profile accurately. Inside, workstations were installed for trainees including one replicating Buran’s cockpit layout exactly. Additionally, the forward baggage compartment was converted into a camera bay used for training cosmonauts in observation and photographic methods.[7]
Tu-154M-ON monitoring aircraft
Germany converted one inherited from East Germany’s Air Force into an observation platform supporting Open Skies treaty inspections after modifications at Elbe Aircraft Plant (Elbe Flugzeugwerke) in Dresden; it first flew in 1996 but was lost during a mid-air collision after completing only twenty-four missions.[8]
Russia also adapted a Tu-154M-LK-1 into an Open Skies monitoring aircraft designated Tu-154M-ON; when not performing surveillance flights over North America, it serves as transport for cosmonauts. China is reported as having converted one unit into an electronic countermeasures platform as of December 2016.[9]
Tu-154M-100
Initiated in 1994 but delivered starting in 1998, this variant incorporated Western avionics such as Flight Management Computer systems, GPS navigation, Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS), Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), among other modern technologies. It could accommodate up to 157 passengers and featured automatic oxygen deployment systems alongside enlarged overhead storage compartments. Only three were produced as partial debt settlement from Russia to Slovakia; these aircraft operated with Slovak Airlines before being sold back to Russia in 2003.[10]
Tu-155
A modified version of the Tu-154 serving as a test platform for alternative fuel sources first flown in 1988 and used until being placed in storage after the Soviet Union dissolved.

Proposed variations

Tu-156
Suggested modifications involving three Tu-154 airframes equipped with Kuznetsov NK-89 turbofan engines designed to operate on liquid natural gas. This project was ultimately not pursued.
Tu-164
The original designation assigned to the Tu-154M model.
Tu-174
A proposed lengthened variant of the Tu-154.
Tu-194
A proposed shortened derivative of the Tu-154.

Operators

File:Air Koryo, Tupolev Tu-154B, P-552.jpg
Air Koryo Tupolev Tu-154B
File:Russian Air Force Tupolev Tu-154M Naumenko.jpg
Russian Air Force Tupolev Tu-154B-2
File:Polish Air Force Tupolev Tu-154 Dmitry Karpezo-2.jpg
Polish military VIP transport Tu-154M Lux from the former 36th Special Air Transport Regiment. This particular aircraft crashed in dense fog at Smolensk North Airport on 10 April 2010, resulting in the deaths of all aboard, including the Polish President

Active operators

As of August 2025, approximately 25 Tupolev Tu-154 aircraft, encompassing all variants, remain in active governmental or military use.

An additional 45th airframe was reportedly observed operating under Air Kyrgyzstan in 2017; however, this aircraft does not appear on the airline’s official fleet roster. A 46th unit, a Polish-operated Tu-154 bearing the operational number 102, is currently stored at the military airfield in Mińsk Mazowiecki. Formerly operated by the 36th Special Aviation Regiment, this aircraft was grounded following the dissolution of the regiment after the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash involving flight 101. Although fully functional at the time, authorities decided against reactivating or selling it pending completion of the Smolensk crash inquiry. By June 2021, this plane remained inactive and is unlikely to return to service given the government’s adoption of newer, more fuel-efficient jets such as the Gulfstream G550 and Boeing 737 NG. Investigations led by Antoni Macierewicz in 2020 revealed structural damage to this aircraft. Access to it has been restricted by the general prosecutor’s office, requiring special authorization to enter its hangar.

As of June 2015, operators still utilizing the type included:

Airline Number in Service Remarks
Template:Country data North KoreaTemplate:Namespace detect showall Air Koryo 1 The last remaining passenger carrier operating this model.
Template:Country data KAZTemplate:Namespace detect showall Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan 1
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Federal Security Service 2
Template:Country data KyrgyzstanTemplate:Namespace detect showall Government of Kyrgyzstan 1
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Gromov Flight Research Institute 1
Template:Country data ChinaTemplate:Namespace detect showall People's Liberation Army Air Force 12
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Russian Aerospace Forces 16
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs
operating for the Government of Russia		 4
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Russian Navy 2
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Chaplygin Siberian Scientific Research Institute Of Aviation 1
Template:Country data RUSTemplate:Namespace detect showall Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center 1
Total 42

Operational history

In January 2010, Russia's national airline, Aeroflot, announced the complete phase-out of its Tu-154 aircraft after four decades of service. The final scheduled journey under this fleet was Aeroflot Flight 736, which flew from Yekaterinburg to Moscow on 31 December 2009. Later that same year, in December 2010, Uzbekistan Airways also revealed plans to retire its Tu-154 models, opting to replace them with Airbus A320 aircraft. By February 2011, all Tu-154 planes operated by Iranian carriers were grounded following two separate incidents.

On 27 December 2016, the Russian Ministry of Defence declared a suspension of all its Tu-154 aircraft pending the conclusion of investigations into the crash involving a 1983-built Tupolev Tu-154 in December 2016. Shortly afterward, Russian authorities extended the grounding to encompass all Tu-154s within the country. This decision came after a tragic accident where a Tu-154 crashed into the Black Sea shortly after departing from Sochi, resulting in the loss of all 92 passengers and crew aboard, including 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble, the official choir of the Russian Armed Forces.

The last Russian passenger carrier operating the Tu-154 was ALROSA, which officially retired its final aircraft of this type in October 2020, marking the end of civilian Tu-154 flights within Russia.

Former Civil Aviation Operators

Template:Country data AfghanistanTemplate:Namespace detect showall Afghanistan
Template:ALB
Template:ARM
Template:AZE
Template:BLR
Template:BIH
Template:BUL
Template:PRC
Template:CRO
Template:CUB
File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Czech Republic
Template:CZS
Template:Country data Djibouti
Template:EGY
Template:EST
Template:Country data Georgia
  1. REDIRECT Template:DEU
Template:GUY
Template:HUN
Template:IRN
Template:Country data Kazakhstan
Template:Country data Kyrgyzstan
Template:Country data Laos
Template:LVA

Latavio

Template:Country data Libya
Template:Country data North Macedonia
Template:Country data Moldova
Template:Country data Mongolia
Template:NIC
Template:PRK
Template:Country data Pakistan
Template:POL
Template:ROM
Template:RUS

'*Perm Airlines' '*Polet Flight' '*Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise' '*Rossiya (airline)' '*Russian Sky Airlines' '*Sayany Airlines' '*S7 Airlines' '*Sakha Avia' '*Samara Airlines' '*Sibaviatrans' '*Tatarstan Airlines' '*Ural Airlines' '*UTair Aviation' '*VIM Airlines' '*Vladivostok Air' '*Vnukovo Airlines' '*Yakutia Airlines' '*Yamal Airlines'

Template:SVK

'*Slovak Airlines'

Template:Country data Somalia'

'*Air Somalia'

Template:SYR'

'*Syrianair'

Template:Country data Tajikistan'

'*Tajik Air'

Template:TUR'

'*Active Air' '*Greenair '*Sultan Air' '*Holiday Airlines

Template:Country data Turkmenistan'

'*Turkmenistan Airlines'

Template:UKR'

'*Air Ukraine' '*Odessa Airlines' '*BSL Airline'

Template:UZB'

'*Uzbekistan Airways'

Template:Country data Yemen'
'*Alyemda'

Previous Military Users

Template:ARM
Armenian Air Force
Template:BUL
Bulgarian Air Force One 154B retired in 1988; one 154M withdrawn from service in April 2010, succeeded by A319 CFM
Template:CUB
Cuban Air Force
Template:CZS
Czechoslovak Air Force (transferred to successor nations)
Template:CZE
Czech Air Force (supplanted by Airbus A319CJ)
Template:GDR
East German Air Force (integrated into FRG)
  1. REDIRECT Template:DEU: German Air Force (assumed from East Germany; one lost in a mid-air collision, the other sold)
Template:MNG
Mongolian Air Force
Template:POL
Polish Air Force – 1 Tu-154M retired in 2011, 1 Tu-154M involved in a 2010 crash
Template:SVK
Slovak Government Flying Service (replaced by Airbus A319CJ)
Template:USSR
Soviet Air Force (passed on to successor states)
Template:TKM
Turkmen Air Force – two Tu-154B-2 withdrawn
Template:UKR
Ukrainian Air Force
Template:UZB
Military of Uzbekistan

Incidents and accidents

Template:Further info

From 1970 until December 2016, the Tu-154 was involved in 110 major incidents,[13] including 73 total losses,[14] resulting in 2,911 deaths.[15] Fatalities included five caused by terrorist or military terrorist acts (with two additional wartime losses that were non-fatal), several due to hazardous winter runway conditions—such as one incident where the aircraft collided with snowplows on the runway—cargo overloading linked to lapses in post-Soviet safety protocols, and mid-air collisions attributed to inadequate air traffic control. Other causes encompassed mechanical failures, fuel exhaustion during unscheduled flights, pilot mistakes—including insufficient training for new flight crews—and onboard cargo fires. Some crashes remain unexplained.

Following the fatal fire aboard Kolavia Flight 348 in Surgut on 2 January 2011, Russia's Federal Transport Oversight Agency recommended suspending operations of all remaining Tu-154 B models until investigations were concluded.[16] The type’s operations in Iran ceased by February 2011 due to several crashes and incidents involving the aircraft model—nearly nine percent of all Tu-154 losses occurred there. This grounding compounded the impact of a US embargo on civil aviation parts, significantly reducing the number of operational aircraft within Iran’s civilian fleet.[17] In 2010, two fatal crashes were attributed to pilot error and/or adverse weather conditions—one involving a Polish presidential aircraft attempting to land at a rural airstrip amid dense fog (the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash), and another Russian-registered flight experiencing engine stall after accidental deactivation of a fuel transfer pump by crew. Subsequently, in March 2011, Russia’s Federal Bureau of Aviation advised retiring all remaining Tu-154Ms from active service.[18]

On 27 December 2016, following the crash on 25 December that claimed the lives of 64 members of the Alexandrov Ensemble—the official Red Army Choir of the Russian Armed Forces—the Russian Defence Ministry ordered an immediate grounding of all Tu-154 aircraft within Russia pending investigation.[19]

Aircraft exhibited

File:Kiev ukraine 1076 state aviation museum zhulyany (25) (5869577851).jpg
CCCP-85020 displayed at the Ukraine State Aviation Museum
File:Tupolev Tu-154 HA-LCR at Thessaloniki - 2018-04-30 - Andy Mabbett - 01 (cropped).jpg
HA-LCR positioned beside the fire station at Thessaloniki International Airport, April 2018

Technical specifications

Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

Parameter Tu-154B-2 Tu-154M
Flight deck crew Five for Tu-154B and three for Tu-154M[25]
Passenger capacity Between 114 and 180 seats
Overall length 48.0 m (157 ft 6 in)
Wingspan 37.55 m (123 ft 2 in)
Wing surface area 201.45 m2 (2,168.4 sq ft) 202 m2 (2,170 sq ft)
Height 11.4 m (37 ft 5 in)
Cabin width 3.58 m (11 ft 9 in)[26]
max takeoff weight 98,000–100,000 kg (216,000–220,000 lb) 102,000–104,000 kg (225,000–229,000 lb)
Parameter Tu-154B-2 Tu-154M
max takeoff weight 98,000–100,000 kg(lb)[convert: unknown unit] [convert: invalid number]
max empty weight [convert: invalid number] [convert: invalid number]
max speed 913 km/h (493 kn) (Mach 0.86)[27]
max range, full payload 2,500 km (1,300 nmi) 5,280 km (2,850 nmi)
max range, maximum fuel 3,900 km (2,100 nmi) 6,600 km (3,600 nmi)
max service ceiling 12,100 m (39,700 ft)
max thrust per engine (x3) [convert: invalid number] [convert: invalid number]
max fuel capacity [convert: invalid number] [convert: invalid number]
Engine type Kuznetsov Design Bureau Kuznetsov NK-8 NK-8-2U Soloviev Design Bureau Soloviev D-30 D-30KU-154


In popular culture

See also

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Citations

  1. ↑ Komissarov, p. 21
  2. ↑ OKB Tupolev, A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, Yefin Gordon and Vladimir Rigmant, translated by Alexander Boyd, edited by Dmitriy Komissarov (Hinckley, UK, 2005) ISBN 1-85780-214-4 p. 257.
  3. ↑ Komissarov, p. 27
  4. ↑ Komissarov, pp. 29–31
  5. ↑ Komissarov, p. 34
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named AirForceWorld.com_tu154md_electronic_intelligence_aircraft
  7. ↑ Komissarov, pp. 36–37
  8. ↑ Komissarov, pp. 38–39
  9. ↑ Komissarov, p. 40
  10. ↑ Komissarov, pp. 36, 144–145
  11. ↑ BH Airlines Archived 17 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine at rzjets.net, Retrieved 13 December 2014
  12. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  13. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  14. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  15. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  16. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  17. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).Template:Fix/category[dead link]
  18. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named rte.ie
  20. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  21. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  22. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  23. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  24. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  25. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  26. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  27. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).

Bibliography

  • Dmitriy Komissarov, Tupolev Tu-154, The USSR's Medium-Range Jet Airliner, (Hinckley, UK, 2007) ISBN 1857802411
  • Yefin Gordon and Vladimir Rigmant, OKB Tupolev, A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft, translated by Alexander Boyd, edited by Dmitriy Komissarov (Hinckley, UK, 2005) ISBN 1-85780-214-4

External links

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