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WordStar

From Alfawiki
MicroPro International Corporation
Company typePublic
IndustrySoftware
FoundedSeptember 1978; 48 years ago (1978-09)
FounderSeymour I. Rubinstein
Key people
Seymour I. Rubinstein, Rob Barnaby, Peter Mierau
ProductsWordStar

WordStar was a word processing software designed for microcomputers, originally created for the CP/M-80 operating system and later adapted for MS-DOS along with other 16-bit personal computer platforms. The initial versions were developed by Rob Barnaby, while starting with WordStar 4.0, Peter Mierau assumed leadership over new development efforts. Throughout the early to mid-1980s, WordStar held a commanding position in the word processing sector, taking over from Electric Pencil.

Built with minimal dependencies on specific operating systems or hardware configurations, WordStar was readily adaptable to numerous platforms prevalent in the early 1980s. Its uniform command structure allowed users to transition between different systems with ease. The inclusion of WordStar as a bundled application on the Osborne 1 portable computer significantly contributed to its establishment as the de facto standard for word processing on small computers.

Nonetheless, as the IBM PC and subsequently Microsoft Windows rose to prominence, WordStar’s architecture—optimized for portability—restricted its ability to expand features and enhance performance. As a result, despite its initial success, WordStar gradually ceded market leadership to WordPerfect beginning in 1985.

Founding

In September 1978, Seymour I. Rubinstein, formerly associated with IMSAI, established MicroPro International Corporation with the goal of marketing software through emerging retail computer outlets. He recruited John Robbins Barnaby, known for creating WordMaster and SuperSort using Intel 8080 assembly language. After evaluating standalone word processors from companies like IBM, Xerox, and Wang Laboratories, Barnaby upgraded WordMaster by incorporating similar functionalities alongside CP/M compatibility. The resulting product was renamed WordStar and launched in June 1979 at a price of US$495 plus an additional US$40 for documentation. By early 1980, MicroPro reported sales totaling 5,000 units within its first eight months.

Early success

WordStar distinguished itself as the first microcomputer word processor to provide mail merge capabilities and an on-screen textual WYSIWYG experience, notably by displaying pagination during document editing. It employed user-configured lines-per-page settings to indicate page breaks via dash characters, enabling users to visualize how text would flow across pages.

Although Barnaby departed MicroPro in March 1980, robust sales combined with effective marketing strategies and bundling agreements with manufacturers such as Osborne drove revenue growth from in 1979 to million by fiscal year 1984—surpassing the earlier market leader Electric Pencil. By May 1983, BYTE magazine described WordStar as "the best-known and probably the most widely used personal computer word-processing program." The June 1983 release of WordStar 3.3 helped push cumulative sales beyond 650,000 copies across IBM PC and other platforms by autumn—more than twice that of the nearest competitor. In that year, MicroPro commanded a 10% share of the personal computer software market. During its initial public offering in 1984, MicroPro became the largest software company worldwide, holding a 23% share of the word processing segment.

The original manual accompanying WordStar was criticized by PC Magazine as "incredibly inadequate" and a "looseleaf nightmare," which led to numerous third-party manuals being produced. Among these was Introduction to WordStar, authored by Arthur Naiman—later founder of Goldstein & Blair—who disliked WordStar so much that he negotiated not to use it while writing his book, opting instead for WRITE.

MS-DOS

WordStar 3.0, the inaugural MS-DOS edition, was released in April 1982. Prior to this, numerous PC users relied on Z-80 cards to operate the CP/M variant. This DOS version closely replicated its predecessor, preserving the distinctive "WordStar diamond" layout and Ctrl-key shortcuts, which facilitated swift acceptance among former CP/M users. Its "non-document" mode gained popularity with programmers for coding purposes. Unlike software tailored exclusively for the IBM PC, WordStar was designed for all x86 systems by utilizing DOS API calls instead of BIOS or direct hardware interaction—this approach introduced some performance delays due to redundant I/O processing.

The first DOS iteration, created by an Irish development team led by Diane Hajicek, was essentially a port of the CP/M-86 version from September 1981. It was distributed as a .COM executable and constrained to 64 kB of memory. Performance improvements were often achieved by running WordStar from a RAM disk board, which simulated disk operations electronically; however, users had to manually save data to physical storage before rebooting.

InfoWorld highlighted the complexity of WordStar, while PC Magazine criticized its function key arrangement; nevertheless, by 1983 it dominated the word processing market on x86 platforms, outselling rivals such as early WordPerfect (1982) and Microsoft Word (1983). It was also included with Kaypro computers.

With MS-DOS enhancements like the introduction of the "Alt" key, WordStar did not fully capitalize on these features, contributing to its gradual decline. MicroPro then concentrated exclusively on IBM-compatible machines with WordStar 4.0, which added directory management essential for hard disk usage, along with basic macros, improved printer compatibility, and customizable function keys. Despite these improvements, WordPerfect overtook WordStar in sales during the late 1980s.

WordStar 5 (1989) incorporated footnote and endnote support as well as page preview capabilities. Later releases (5.5 and 6) expanded functionality further. The 7 version (1991) introduced a comprehensive macro language, compatibility with over 500 printers, style sheets, and mouse support—efforts aimed at modernizing the software to remain competitive.

Problems with piracy

Up through version 3.3, WordStar lacked copy protection measures. Columnist John Dvorak observed that it was probably the most widely pirated software worldwide, which ironically contributed to its widespread adoption. Manuals for WordStar sold robustly as reference guides for unauthorized copies, potentially generating significant revenue solely from documentation sales. When copy protection was finally implemented in WordStar 2000, its downturn became foreseeable.

The combination of third-party manuals and extensive customizable onscreen help made it straightforward for users to operate illicit copies.

WordStar 2000

During the period when the IBM Displaywriter System dominated dedicated word processors, IBM intended to port DisplayWrite to personal computers. In reaction, MicroPro developed WordStar 2000 in 1984 as a competitor. This version introduced disk directory features but was incompatible with earlier WordStar file formats and incorporated interface changes that were unpopular among users. Rivals like WordPerfect and MultiMate—the latter emulating Wang word processor key sequences favored by secretarial staff—gradually eroded MicroPro’s market position.

In a 1986 review, BYTE described WordStar 2000 as "awkward, overcomplicated, and unappealing," recommending an IBM PC AT equipped with a hard drive for optimal performance. The user interface diverged considerably from the original WordStar design, though MicroPro invested little effort into promoting these modifications. Nevertheless, WordStar 2000 introduced enduring keyboard shortcuts—Ctrl+B for bold, Ctrl+I for italic, and Ctrl+U for underline—which remain standard across modern word processors today.

NewStar

Although MicroPro lacked a formal corporate sales strategy until late 1983, WordStar managed to secure widespread adoption among large enterprises. However, the company became known for its lack of customer responsiveness, notably neglecting to update or inform users when PC DOS 1.1 rendered WordStar 3.02 incompatible. The 1983 launch of version 3.3 brought enhancements in documentation and functionality but remained limited to 64K of RAM. Reviews frequently criticized MicroPro’s customer service, with PC Magazine describing it as exhibiting "arrogant indifference" and highlighting the software’s challenging usability despite its robust capabilities.

By the end of 1984, MicroPro recognized that WordStar’s dominance was eroding, and by early 1985, sales had declined for four consecutive quarters while competitors such as Multimate and Samna gained traction. A group of former MicroPro employees established NewStar, which introduced NewWord in September 1983—a WordStar-compatible application that included integrated spell checking and laser printer support. Marketing for NewWord stressed an effortless transition for existing WordStar users by emphasizing file compatibility.

In spite of competition from NewStar as well as Microsoft Word and WordPerfect—both of which frequently issued updates—MicroPro remained stagnant, failing to release any new WordStar versions throughout 1984 and 1985. After founder Rubinstein suffered a heart attack in January 1984, management shifts led to the cancellation of the promising Starburst office suite project; instead, the company acquired a clone product to create WordStar 2000, which debuted in December 1984. This release was poorly received because it did not maintain compatibility with previous WordStar files and confused customers by pricing it identically to version 3.3. Internal disputes between advocates of the original WordStar and the new WordStar 2000 further destabilized the company, with revenues dropping to $40 million in fiscal year 1985.

In 1984, Jerry Pournelle commended NewWord for its compatibility with WordStar 3.3, additional features, and superior help system; as a result, many users switched to NewWord’s second iteration that year. By 1986, NewWord 3 was characterized by The New York Times as offering "the perfect excuse for WordStar users to switch software." A survey conducted in 1990 by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants indicated that WordStar maintained a 13% market share—second only to WordPerfect at 46% but ahead of Microsoft Word’s 8%—although user satisfaction lagged behind competing products.

In February 1985, MicroPro committed to updating WordStar 3.3 but no new versions appeared until after new management acquired NewWord and released WordStar 4.0 in 1987—four years after the previous edition. Meanwhile, Microsoft Word and WordPerfect consolidated their market leadership by regularly issuing updates. Additional internal conflicts postponed the launch of WordStar 5.0 until late 1988, resulting in further sales declines. Following a rebranding as WordStar International in 1989, the company merged with SoftKey in 1993.

WordStar for Windows

WordStar International was slow to develop a version compatible with Windows 3.0; ultimately, it acquired Legacy—a word processor designed for Windows—and adapted it into WordStar for Windows, released in 1991. Although it received favorable reviews and offered features typically found only in more advanced desktop publishing software, its delayed market entry allowed Microsoft Word to dominate corporate environments by that time.

Abandonment

WordStar is currently classified as abandonware, with its final update having been issued in December 1992.

Notable users

Among WordStar's distinguished users was conservative thinker William F. Buckley, Jr., who remained devoted to the software despite difficulties installing it on newer systems. His son, Christopher Buckley, emphasized this dedication by quoting his father: "I'm told there are better programs, but I'm also told there are better alphabets."

Other significant figures who utilized WordStar include Ralph Ellison and Canadian science-fiction author Robert J. Sawyer, who composed all twenty-five of his novels using WordStar 7.0 for DOS. After WordStar became abandonware without a proper online repository, Sawyer assembled the "Complete WordStar 7.0 Archive," which includes scanned manuals, utilities, and ready-to-use versions for DOSBox-X and VDosPlus to ensure the software's preservation.

As of 2020, fantasy writer George R. R. Martin still employed WordStar 4.0 for MS-DOS in his work. Additionally, Andy Breckman, creator of Monk, is known to be a committed user.

Novelist Anne Rice was a long-term WordStar user who reluctantly transitioned to Microsoft Word when WordStar ceased compatibility with modern hardware. She described WordStar as "logical, beautiful, perfect," contrasting it with MS Word, which she called "pure madness."

Version list

Below is an overview of the various WordStar editions released over time across different platforms:

  • WordStar 1.0 for CP/M (1978)
  • WordStar 2.0 for CP/M (1978)
  • WordStar for TRS-80 LDOS (1979)
  • WordStar for Epson Personal Computer (1980)
  • WordStar for Osborne 1 Portable Computer (1981)
  • WordStar 3.0 for CP/M and MS-DOS (1982)
  • WordStar 3.3 for CP/M and MS-DOS (1983)
  • WordStar for PCjr (1984)
  • WordStar 2000 for MS-DOS (1985)
  • WordStar 2000 for AT&T UNIX (1985)
  • WordStar Express for MS-DOS (1986)
  • WordStar 2000 Release 2 for MS-DOS (1986)
  • WordStar 2000 Plus Release 3.5 for MS-DOS (1987)
  • WordStar 4 for CP/M and MS-DOS (1987)
  • WordStar 5 for MS-DOS (1988)
  • WordStar 6 for MS-DOS (1990)
  • WordStar for Windows 1.0 (1991)
  • WordStar for Windows 1.1 (1991)
  • WordStar 7 for MS-DOS (1992)
  • WordStar for Windows 1.5 (1992)
  • WordStar for Windows 2.0 (1994)

Interface

Prior to WordStar’s emergence, word processors typically separated text input from formatting tasks, often postponing formatting until the printing stage. WordStar was among the pioneers of "what you see is what you get" editing by presenting accurate line and page breaks on-screen—although it did not support font styles like bold or italics until version 5.0.

On a conventional display showing 25 lines, the upper third was dedicated to command menus and status information, while the remaining two-thirds displayed the document text. Users could adjust help settings to progressively reduce on-screen guidance as they became more proficient with commands.

Initially designed for terminals lacking function or cursor keys, WordStar employed Control-key combinations positioned near the home row to facilitate navigation and formatting without disrupting typing flow. For instance, the "diamond" keys Ctrl-S/E/D/X moved the cursor left/up/right/down; Ctrl-A/F jumped by words; Ctrl-R/C scrolled pages; Ctrl-G deleted characters; and commands like Ctrl-P-B applied bold formatting inline using codes such as ^B for bold or ^Y for italics.

While some shortcuts were not immediately intuitive, mnemonic patterns enabled users to develop rapid proficiency through muscle memory, allowing swift document traversal without memorizing arbitrary sequences.

Early editions of WordStar did not feature automatic paragraph reformatting; users had to manually invoke commands to adjust layouts. Subsequent versions like WordStar 2000 introduced automatic reformatting while retaining manual controls.

A notable capability was persistent block marking (^KB/^KK), which allowed users to select text blocks that could be copied or moved later (^KC/^KV), differing from competitors like Microsoft Word that required immediate action upon selection. The software also supported true bookmarks (^K1 through ^K9), facilitating efficient navigation within lengthy documents.

The unique Column Mode enabled rectangular text selection spanning multiple lines—ideal for editing columns of data or performing calculations directly within the editor.

Formatting commands were placed before text rather than invisibly embedded at paragraph ends, providing clear indicators of where formatting began or ended. Page and section formatting utilized "dot commands"—lines starting with a period followed by codes such as .lh (line height), .lm (left margin), or .rm (right margin)—with values specified in points, inches, or millimeters.

Lines containing invalid formatting codes were ignored during printing without error notifications, which could confuse less experienced users if lines inadvertently started with a period.

The interface underwent redesign in WordStar 2000, replacing cryptic control codes with English-language mnemonics—for example, deleting a word changed from ^T to ^RW—but this update failed to resonate with its established user base and did not achieve widespread adoption.

The original WordStar interface has influenced numerous subsequent applications; its control-key shortcuts remain accessible in modern editors such as TextMaker, various MS-DOS and UNIX text editors, and Borland products like the Turbo Pascal IDE and Borland Sidekick. The TRS-80 Model 100’s built-in TEXT editor also supports subsets of WordStar cursor commands.

Several contemporary word processors can open or save documents in WordStar format, ensuring access to legacy files. Moreover, keyboard command emulators allow users to apply familiar WordStar shortcuts within modern programs like Microsoft Word and WordPerfect, maintaining productivity across platforms.

Add-ons and Companion Products

MailMerge was an extension integrated starting with WordStar 4 that facilitated merge printing for mass mailings such as business correspondence. Its operation depended on:

  1. a recipient data file formatted as comma-separated plain ASCII text (for example, Clients.dat), where each entry contained client details like name and address. WordStar also accepted Lotus 1-2-3 (*.wk1) files and allowed the use of selection flags to include or exclude specific recipients.
  2. a master letter document comprising standard paragraphs (boilerplate text), which could be combined with or inserted from external subordinate files.

Within the master document, placeholders denoted by ampersands (e.g., &TITLE&, &SURNAME&) were dynamically replaced by corresponding information from the recipient list, enabling personalized bulk mailings.

Additional extensions included SpellStar, a spell-checking utility later incorporated into WordStar itself, and DataStar, which simplified the creation of data files for merge printing. These tools represented important advances for PC users in the early 1980s. Together with CalcStar, a spreadsheet designed with a WordStar-like interface, they formed StarBurst, one of the earliest integrated office suites for personal computers that combined word processing, database management, and spreadsheet capabilities.

In the late 1980s, WordStar 5 was distributed with PC-Outline, a widely used DOS outliner developed by Brown Bag Software. Although not natively compatible, PC-Outline documents could be exported into WordStar format for seamless integration.

Bidirectional Text

In approximately 1978, Elbit Systems in Israel introduced the CP/M-compatible microcomputer DS2100. To set their product apart, Elbit collaborated with MicroPro to develop a WordStar version supporting both English and Hebrew input. This innovation was groundbreaking because Hebrew is written right-to-left, while most word processors at the time assumed left-to-right text direction. Elbit’s adaptation of WordStar became the first to enable bidirectional text input and support mixed alphabets.

Elbit obtained rights to the source code, and its Haifa-based development team maintained the Hebrew-English version of WordStar as the leading WYSIWYG word processor for several years until newer competitors appeared.

File Types

WordStar categorized files as either "document" or "nondocument," a distinction that sometimes caused confusion among users. "Document" files contained embedded formatting codes, whereas "nondocument" files were plain ASCII text without any formatting commands. Operating in "Nondocument Mode" resembled working within a classic text editor. With WordStar 5, a document-mode "print preview" feature was introduced, providing a WYSIWYG display including graphical elements as they would appear on printouts.

Filename Extensions

  • DOS-based WordStar files commonly had no file extension; some users appended WS along with the version number (e.g., WS3) or simply WS. Backup copies were saved with a BAK extension.
  • WordStar for Windows utilized extensions such as WSD for documents, WST for templates, WMC for macros, and !WS for temporary files.
  • WordStar 2000 editions for DOS and UNIX PCs typically used DOC or WS2 extensions but did not enforce a fixed naming convention.

Installation

The installation process for early versions of WordStar—particularly on CP/M systems—was markedly different from contemporary procedures. Users initially had to enter printer and terminal escape sequence codes manually in hexadecimal format into program memory based on hardware manuals. This necessity arose because CP/M lacked hardware abstraction layers. Switching printers required reinstalling the software and occasionally applying machine-language patches to adjust screen display effects or ensure printer compatibility. Due to its complexity and technical demands, installing WordStar was frequently discussed in CP/M users' group forums.

While DOS versions standardized screen output routines, printer customization remained necessary during setup.

Running on contemporary systems

WordStar 3.x relied on the MS-DOS File control block (FCB) mechanism, which was originally created to simplify transitioning software from CP/M to MS-DOS. However, after MS-DOS shifted to a Unix-style file handle system, FCBs became obsolete. Since current Windows editions have discontinued FCB support, WordStar 3.x is unable to save files or operate correctly.

Solutions include utilizing the DOSEMU emulator on Linux, which supports FCB functionality (unlike DOSBox), or opting for WordStar 4.0 that employs the updated MS-DOS I/O interface and can run within OS/2 DOS environments or on FreeDOS. Versions designed for CP/M can be executed through CP/M emulators such as CPMEmu for Linux and Raspberry Pi or CP/M for OS X on macOS.

In October 2014, WordStar compatibility was integrated into vDos, a DOSBox variant tailored for business software, allowing WordStar 4.0 and later versions to function on both 32- and 64-bit Windows platforms from XP through Windows 10. In 2024, Robert J. Sawyer released WordStar collections that are compatible across all current operating systems.

Emulation

Although there is no native WordStar edition for today’s operating systems, some users continue to favor its efficient cursor diamond commands that reduce finger movement by keeping hands near the home row.

To cater to this preference, emulation utilities have been developed. CtrlPlus by Yoji Hagiya remaps PC keyboards to enable numerous WordStar commands in Windows applications by swapping Control and Caps Lock keys, thereby restoring the classic key layout and cursor diamond functionality.

The 'WordStar Command Emulator for Microsoft Word' (also called 'WordStar for Word') created by Mike Petrie works alongside CtrlPlus by incorporating an extensive set of WordStar commands and menu styles into Microsoft Word versions 97 through 2010. It reproduces functions such as Ctrl+K? for word count and Ctrl+QL for spell checking, along with block operations like Ctrl+KB to mark the start of a block. This VBA-based add-in boosts productivity by embedding familiar WordStar workflows within Microsoft Word.

Earlier versions of GNU Emacs included a now-discontinued 'wordstar-mode.el' for WordStar emulation; a comparable macro collection is also available for Vi (text editor).

The cross-platform text editor Joe offers a WordStar-like experience via its jstar mode, which imitates many keybindings. While it lacks formatting features and primarily operates in non-document mode, Joe supports creating formatted content in HTML/CSS, Markdown, or other markup languages.

Legacy

NewStar produced NewWord for the Amstrad PCW 8256 and PCW 8512 during the mid-1980s; these systems ran CP/M from 3-inch floppy disks. NewWord was also released for MS-DOS as well as a native Concurrent CP/M version closely resembling WordStar. LapStar served as a simplified imitation designed for the TRS-80 Model 100 portable computer.

Since 2013, development has continued on WordTsar, a partial clone of WordStar. Additionally, German developer Martin Vieregg has marketed Write&Set, a shareware GUI-based WordStar clone available since the late 1990s for Microsoft Windows and OS/2–eComStation, with later expansions supporting Linux and OS X.

See also

External links

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