Jump to content

Armstrong Whitworth Whitley

From Alfawiki
Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft
IndustryAerospace
Founded1913
Headquarters
Coventry
,
United Kingdom
ProductsAircraft, including the Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38 Whitley bomber


Template:Infobox aircraft

The Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38 Whitley was a British medium to heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s. It was among the trio of twin-engine, frontline medium bombers operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF) at the onset of the Second World War. Alongside the Vickers Wellington and Handley Page Hampden, the Whitley was designed during the mid-1930s to satisfy the requirements of Air Ministry Specification B.3/34, which it ultimately fulfilled. Entering RAF squadron service in 1937, it was the earliest of these three medium bombers to be introduced.

After hostilities began in September 1939, the Whitley took part in the RAF's initial bombing mission over German territory and played a significant role in the early British bombing campaigns. By 1942, it was replaced in frontline bombing duties by larger four-engine "heavy bombers" such as the Avro Lancaster. Its operational use extended to maritime reconnaissance with Coastal Command, as well as secondary roles including glider towing, training, and transport missions. Additionally, the type was acquired by British Overseas Airways Corporation for use as a civilian cargo aircraft. The name "Whitley" derives from a suburb of Coventry, where Armstrong Whitworth's principal manufacturing facility was located.

Origins

File:British WW2 medium bombers comparison.png
Size comparison diagram of Britain's three twin-engined medium bombers at the start of World War II; Whitley (pink), Vickers Wellington (blue), and Handley Page Hampden (yellow)

In July 1934, the Air Ministry issued Specification B.3/34 calling for a heavy night bomber and troop transport to succeed the biplane Handley Page Heyford. This combined bomber-transport concept aligned with RAF strategic plans for conflicts within distant parts of the British Empire, where aircraft would deliver troops to operational theatres and then provide aerial support.

John Lloyd, Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft's Chief Designer, responded with the AW.38 design, later named Whitley after Armstrong Whitworth’s main factory location. The AW.38 evolved from the earlier Armstrong Whitworth AW.23 bomber-transport design, which had been unsuccessful against the Bristol Bombay under Specification C.26/31.

Lloyd opted for the Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX radial engines to power the Whitley, each producing 795 hp (593 kW). A notable innovation was its use of de Havilland-manufactured three-bladed variable-pitch propellers—the first aircraft to operate with this technology.

Initially, flaps were omitted due to Lloyd’s limited experience with their application on large heavy monoplanes. To compensate, the mid-wing was installed at a steep angle of incidence (8.5°) to enhance takeoff and landing capabilities. Although flaps were eventually incorporated late in development, the wing angle remained unchanged, causing the aircraft to maintain a pronounced nose-down attitude during cruise flight, which increased aerodynamic drag.

The Whitley was pioneering as the first RAF aircraft featuring a semi-monocoque fuselage constructed with flat-sided panels for manufacturing efficiency. This approach replaced Armstrong Whitworth's traditional tubular frame construction and utilized light-alloy rolled sections, pressings, and corrugated panels. Aviation historian Philip Moyes regarded this structural choice as a major advancement that contributed to many Whitleys surviving combat damage.

Due to an urgent need to replace biplane heavy bombers in RAF service, an initial order for 80 units was placed in June 1935—split evenly between early Whitley Mk I models and improved Whitley Mk IIs. Production was distributed among three Coventry facilities: fuselage and components at Whitley Abbey; panel shaping and detailed work at the former Coventry Ordnance Works; and wing fabrication plus final assembly at Baginton Aerodrome. Contracts for production were awarded before any prototype had flown.

The first prototype Whitley Mk I, serial K4586, completed its maiden flight on 17 March 1936 at Baginton Aerodrome with Armstrong Whitworth’s Chief Test Pilot Alan Campbell-Orde at the controls. It was equipped with two 795 horsepower (593 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX air-cooled radial engines. The second prototype, K4587, featured more powerful supercharged Tiger XI engines. These prototypes closely resembled production models; ultimately, 34 Whitley Mk I aircraft were manufactured.

Further development

Following the completion of the initial 34 aircraft, the original engines were substituted with the more dependable two-speed-supercharged Tiger VIII units. The 27th Whitley produced, K7243, is thought to have been used as a prototype after undergoing modifications. This updated model was designated the Whitley Mk II, with a total of 46 units manufactured to this specification. One particular Whitley Mk II, K7243, served as a test platform for the 1,200 hp (890 kW) 21-cylinder radial Armstrong Siddeley Deerhound engine, making its maiden flight with this powerplant on 6 January 1939.[1] Additionally, another Whitley Mk I, identified as K7208, was altered to accommodate an increased gross weight of 33,500 lb (15,200 kg).

The 29th production Whitley, K7211, became the prototype for an enhanced version known as the Whitley Mk III. This variant incorporated several advancements including replacing the manually operated nose turret with a powered single Nash & Thompson turret and adding a hydraulically driven retractable twin-gun ventral "dustbin" turret. However, due to operational difficulties and increased aerodynamic drag caused by the ventral turret, the Whitley Mk III remained the sole variant equipped with this feature. Other enhancements involved increasing the dihedral angle of the outer wing panels, upgrading navigational systems, and fitting new bomb racks. A total of 80 Whitley Mk III aircraft were produced.

Although the Tiger VIII engines deployed in Whitley Mks II and III offered improved reliability compared to earlier models, in 1938 the aircraft was re-engined with Rolls-Royce Merlin powerplants, leading to the creation of the Whitley Mk IV. Initially, three Whitley Mk I airframes—K7208, K7209, and K7211—were converted as prototypes for this upgrade. The introduction of Merlin engines significantly enhanced performance. Additional modifications included replacing manually operated tail and retractable ventral turrets with a powered Nash & Thompson tail turret armed with four .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, expanding fuel capacity by installing two extra tanks in the wings. In total, 40 units of Whitley Mk IV and its sub-variant Mk IVA—which featured more powerful Merlin engine versions—were completed.

Subsequently, a series of minor refinements led to the development of the Whitley Mk V. These adjustments comprised redesigning the tail fins and rudders, fitting leading edge de-icers, further increasing fuel storage, adopting a smaller D/F loop housed in an aerodynamic fairing, and extending the rear fuselage by 15 in (381 mm) to enhance the rear gunner's field of fire. The Whitley Mk V became by far the most widely produced model, with 1,466 aircraft built before production ceased in June 1943.

The final version constructed was the Whitley Mk VII, which differed from previous models by being tailored for RAF Coastal Command duties rather than general bombing roles. A Whitley Mk V airframe, P3949, served as its prototype. Production comprised 146 new Mk VII aircraft along with conversions from existing Mk V units. This variant included a sixth crew member dedicated to operating the new ASV Mk II radar system and featured increased fuel capacity to support extended anti-shipping patrols. Some Whitley Mk VIIs were later adapted as trainer aircraft by adding extra seating and flight engineer instrumentation.

Earlier Whitley variants utilized bomb bay doors on both fuselage and wing bays that were secured by bungee cords. During bombing runs, these doors opened when bomb weight pressed down on them and closed again via bungee tension afterward. However, this mechanism caused inconsistent door opening delays that negatively impacted bombing accuracy. The introduction of hydraulic doors on the Mk III markedly improved precision during bombing operations. For aiming bombs, the bomb aimer would open a hatch in the nose to extend the bomb sight outside the fuselage; this hatch was replaced on the Mk IV by a slightly extended transparent plexiglas panel which enhanced crew comfort while maintaining functionality.[2]

Design

File:Installing Browning on Whitley June 1940 IWM CH 246.jpg
A Browning machine gun being mounted in a Whitley turret, 1940

The Armstrong Whitworth Whitley was a heavy bomber powered by two engines, originally equipped with a pair of 795 hp (593 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX radial engines.[3] Later versions, beginning with the Whitley Mk IV, replaced these with two 1,030 hp (770 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin IV V12 engines, which significantly enhanced the aircraft's overall performance.[4][5]

The crew consisted of five members: a pilot, co-pilot/navigator, bomb aimer, wireless operator, and rear gunner. The cockpit housed the pilot and co-pilot/navigator seated side by side, while the wireless operator was positioned further aft. After takeoff, the navigator’s seat, mounted on rails and capable of pivoting, slid backward and rotated to the left to access the chart table behind him.[2] The bomb aimer occupied the nose section beneath a gun turret. The fuselage behind the wireless operator was horizontally divided by the bomb bay; aft of this bay was the main entrance, followed by the rear turret.[2] Bombs were stored in two fuselage bomb bays along with an additional 14 smaller compartments within the wings.[6] Other accounts describe 16 smaller "cells": two sets of two in the fuselage and four groups of three in the wings, plus two smaller compartments for parachute flares located at the rear fuselage.[2] The Whitley Mk III introduced bomb racks designed to accommodate larger ordnance.[7]

Initial models featured manually operated nose and rear turrets, each armed with a single Vickers 0.303 machine gun. The Whitley Mk III saw major changes to this setup: a retractable ventral 'dustbin' turret was added, mounting twin .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, and the nose turret was upgraded to a power-operated Nash & Thompson design.[7] On the Whitley Mk IV, both tail and ventral turrets were replaced by a Nash & Thompson power-operated tail turret armed with four Browning .303 machine guns; this enhancement made the Whitley one of the most heavily defended bombers worldwide against rear assaults.[5]

File:Paratroopers inside the fuselage of a Whitley aircraft at RAF Ringway, August 1942. H22785.jpg
Paratroopers inside a Whitley's fuselage, August 1942

The fuselage was constructed in three segments, with main frames riveted to the skin while intermediate sections were fastened to the inner flanges of longitudinal stringers.[8] Extensive use of Alclad metal sheeting was employed throughout. Fuel storage included three tanks: two 182 imp gal (830 L; 219 US gal) tanks embedded in each outer wing’s leading edge and one 155 imp gal (700 L; 186 US gal) tank situated atop the fuselage over the spar center section; additionally, two auxiliary tanks could be fitted within the front fuselage bomb bay. Oil tanks were integrated into the inner leading edges of the wings and functioned as radiant oil coolers as well.[6][2] To streamline manufacturing, efforts focused on reducing parts count and standardizing components.[8] The robust fuselage design allowed it to endure substantial damage during operations.[6]

The Whitley’s wings were large and rectangular, earning it the nickname "the flying barn door".[6] Like the fuselage, wings were composed of three sections built around a substantial box spar; leading and trailing edges were affixed at each rib along this spar.[9] The forward wing surfaces featured flush-riveted smooth metal sheeting without structural stress, while approximately two-thirds of the area aft of the box spar—including ailerons and split flaps—were covered in fabric.[2][9] Split flaps constructed from duralumin spanned between ailerons and fuselage; these flaps deployed at angles between 15–20 degrees for takeoff and up to 60 degrees during landing approaches.[6] Tailplanes shared similar construction methods as wings; fins were supported by metal struts attached to the fuselage, while elevators and rudders incorporated servo-balanced trim tabs for improved control.[6]

Military service

File:Armstrong Whitworth Whitley production 1941.jpg
Whitley Mk.V production, 1941

The Whitley Mk I was introduced into squadron service with the No. 10 Squadron of the RAF on 9 March 1937, replacing their Handley Page Heyford biplanes.[10] The Whitley Mk II followed in January 1938 with No. 58 Squadron, and by August 1938, the Whitley Mk III was operational with No. 51 Squadron.[10] In May 1939, No. 10 Squadron began operating the Whitley Mk IV, while the Whitley Mk IVA entered service with No. 78 Squadron in August of that year.[10] At the onset of the Second World War, seven squadrons were equipped with Whitleys, primarily Mk III and IV variants, with the newer Whitley V just introduced; a total of 196 Whitleys were in RAF inventory.[11][10][12]

At war’s outbreak, 4 Group, operating Whitleys, was the world’s sole fully trained night bombing force.[10] Alongside the Handley Page Hampden and Vickers Wellington, the Whitley played a central role in early combat operations and participated in the first night of hostilities by dropping propaganda leaflets over Germany.[13] This mission marked the Whitley as the first aircraft under RAF Bomber Command to penetrate German airspace.[10] Subsequent leaflet drops extended to cities such as Berlin, Prague, and Warsaw.[14] On the night of 19/20 March 1940, together with Hampdens, Whitleys carried out the initial bombing raid on German territory targeting the Hörnum seaplane base on the Island of Sylt.[15][16] After this operation, Whitleys regularly patrolled the Frisian Islands to disrupt enemy shipping and seaplane activities.[10]

File:Armstrong Whitworth Whitley MkI in flight c1938.jpg
Merlin-powered prototype K7208 (converted Whitley Mk I), circa 1938

Unlike the Hampden and Wellington, which were designed to meet Specification B.9/32 as day bombers, the Whitley was specifically intended for nocturnal missions and thus avoided heavy losses suffered during daytime raids against German shipping early in the war.[8] Despite being the oldest bomber among its peers at war’s start and considered outdated, over a thousand additional units were produced before a suitable successor emerged. A notable issue with radar-equipped Mk VII models was that their added aerial drag prevented maintaining altitude on a single engine. Throughout its Bomber Command service, Whitleys conducted 8,996 sorties, dropped approximately 9,845 tons (8,931 tonnes) of ordnance, and lost 269 aircraft in combat.[17]

On the night spanning 11/12 June 1940, during Operation Haddock, Whitleys executed the RAF’s inaugural bombing raid on Italy shortly after Italy declared war; targets included Turin and Genoa, reached via refueling stops in the Channel Islands.[13][16] Several prominent WWII RAF bomber pilots flew Whitleys at some stage, including Don Bennett, James Brian Tait, and Leonard Cheshire.[18]

During the night of 10/11 February 1941, six Whitley V aircraft from No. 51 Squadron under Tait's leadership participated in Operation Colossus, Britain's first airborne mission delivering paratroopers to sabotage the Tragino Aqueduct in southern Italy. However, paratroopers often found exiting via a floor chute challenging; if mistimed, airflow could forcibly eject them prematurely causing facial injuries from contact with the chute edge—a phenomenon colloquially known as a "Whitley kiss."Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

On 29/30 April 1942, No. 58 Squadron executed a bombing raid against Belgium’s Port of Ostend using Whitleys; this marked the final combat operation for a squadron equipped solely with this type.[19] By late 1942, frontline bomber squadrons phased out the Whitley, reallocating it to secondary roles including supply drops and agent insertions within Special Duties squadrons (138 and 161) until December that year. It also served as a transport for personnel and cargo, paratrooper carrier, and glider tug.[17][20] In its capacity as a standard paratroop transport from 1940 onward, modifications often involved adapting the ventral turret opening to facilitate troop egress.[19] Additionally, No. 100 Group RAF employed Whitleys outfitted for radar operations and electronic countermeasures. In February 1942, they were instrumental in deploying paratroopers during the Bruneval raid (Operation Biting), which successfully captured German radar equipment from a coastal installation in France.[17]

The long-range Coastal Command Mk VII versions were among the last Whitleys to remain active in frontline duties, continuing service until early 1943.[19] The first confirmed U-boat kill credited to a Whitley Mk VII occurred on 17 July 1942 with U-751 sunk jointly alongside an Avro Lancaster.[21][22] Following evaluation in 1942, modified ex-RAF Mk VIIs were operated by the Fleet Air Arm from 1944 through 1946 to train crews on Merlin engine management and fuel transfer techniques.[15]

Civilian service

During April and May of 1942, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) utilized 15 Whitley Mk V aircraft that had been adapted for cargo transport. This conversion entailed removing all weaponry, smoothing over turret recesses, installing extra fuel tanks within the bomb bay, modifying the fuselage interior to accommodate freight, and equipping at least one plane with an expanded cargo door. These aircraft were primarily deployed for nocturnal supply missions from Gibraltar to Malta, a journey lasting approximately seven hours and often culminating in landings amid Axis air raids on Malta.[23] Additionally, Whitley freighters operated along the perilous route between RAF Leuchars, Scotland, and Stockholm, Sweden. Despite their use, the Whitley’s fuel consumption was disproportionately high relative to its modest payload capacity, among other drawbacks that rendered it less suitable. Consequently, by August 1942, the Whitleys were replaced by the Lockheed Hudson, and the remaining 14 aircraft were returned to RAF service.[23]

Variants

File:Armstrong Whitworth Whitley prototype c1936.jpg
Whitley prototype around 1936
File:Bombing up 502 Squadron RAF Whitley Aldergrove Nov 1940 IWM HU 107184.jpg
Ground crew loading 250lb bombs into a Whitley Mk V from No. 502 Squadron RAF, 1940

Following the initial two prototypes (serials K4586 and K4587), at the onset of World War II the RAF operated 207 Whitleys spanning Mk I through Mk IV variants. Subsequent improved models included:

Mk I
A.W. Type 188. Equipped with 795 hp (593 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX air-cooled radial engines, featuring a dihedral angle of four degrees on each outer wing panel; earlier units were later modified accordingly. A total of 34 were constructed.[7]
Mk II
A.W. Type 197 (including some Type 220). Powered by 920 hp (690 kW) two-speed supercharged Tiger VIII engines. Forty-six units were built.[7]
Mk III
A.W. Type 205. Utilized Tiger VIII engines and incorporated a hydraulically operated retractable "dustbin" ventral turret located behind the wing root, armed with twin .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns, alongside hydraulically controlled bomb bay doors and capability to carry larger ordnance. Eighty aircraft produced.[7]
Mk IV
A.W. Type 209. Fitted with 1,030 hp (770 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin IV inline liquid-cooled engines, increased fuel storage, an extended bomb-aimer’s canopy, and replaced manually operated tail and retractable ventral turrets with a single powered Nash & Thompson tail turret armed with four .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns. Manufactured from 1938 onwards with 33 units completed.[5]
Mk IVA
A.W. Type 210. A variant of the Mk IV powered by 1,145 hp (854 kW) Merlin X engines; these were installed on the final Mk IV aircraft produced on the assembly line. Seven built in total.[5]
Mk V
A.W. Type 207. The principal wartime production model derived from the Mk IV, featuring straight-edged vertical stabilizers, leading-edge de-icing equipment, and an extension of the tail fuselage aft by 15 in (381 mm) to enhance the tail gunner’s firing range.[15] Its maiden flight occurred in December 1938, with production ceasing in June 1943 after manufacturing 1,466 units.[24]
Mk VI
A proposed variant powered by Pratt & Whitney G.R.1830 Twin Wasp engines intended as a contingency against Merlin engine shortages; no examples were built.[24]
Mk VII
A.W. Type 217. Developed for Coastal Command operations and featuring a sixth crew member, this version was capable of extended-range missions (approximately 2,300 mi/3,700 km compared to earlier models’ 1,250 mi (2,010 km)[15]). It incorporated additional fuel tanks in both bomb bay and fuselage areas and was equipped with ASV Mk. II radar for anti-shipping patrol duties, including four 'stickleback' dorsal radar masts plus supplementary antennae. A total of 146 were produced. Due to its increased weight, this variant was unable to maintain altitude on a single engine.[25]

Operators

File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1939-1941. CH1764.jpg
The port-side fuselage of Whitley Mk V P5005 'DY-N' from No. 102 Squadron, showing damage sustained after a Ruhr bombing mission on the night of 12/13 November 1940, caused by German flak fire
File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1939-1941. C917.jpg
Loading of Propaganda leaflets onto a Whitley aircraft, circa 1940
File:Royal Air Force Coastal Command, 1939-1945. CH5831.jpg
Personnel from the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) engaged in cleaning and painting a Whitley Mk V assigned to No. 51 Squadron, around 1942

Military operators

Template:UK

Civil operators

Template:UK

Existing aircraft

File:Whitley memorial.JPG
Whitley Squadron War Memorial, Coventry, 2010

None of the 1,814 Whitleys originally manufactured have survived intact. The Whitley Project is currently reconstructing one from recovered fragments, while a fuselage segment is exhibited at the Midland Air Museum (MAM), located near the airfield where the Whitley first took flight.[26]

Specifications (Whitley Mk V)

File:Armstrong Whitworth Whitley.png
Drawing of Merlin-powered Whitley Mk.V, with an inset profile showing the Tiger-powered Mk III featuring a retractable "dustbin" turret.
File:Armstrong Whitworth Whitley rear fuselage, Midland Air Museum. (12866262994).jpg
Rear fuselage section preserved at the Midland Air Museum, 2006

Template:Aircraft specs

See also

Template:External media Template:Aircontent

Notes

  1. ↑ Roberts 1986, p. 8.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named flight 402
  3. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 4–5.
  4. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 5–6.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Moyes 1967, p. 6.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Moyes 1967, p. 4.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Moyes 1967, p. 5.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Moyes 1967, p. 3.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Moyes 1967, pp. 3–4.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Moyes 1967, p. 11.
  11. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Mondey1994p18
  12. ↑ Thetford 1957, p. 27.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Willingp22
  14. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 11–12.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Crosby2007pp48-49
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Moyes 1967, p. 12.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Moyes1976p327
  18. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 12–13.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Moyes 1967, p. 13.
  20. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 13–14.
  21. ↑ U-206. uboat.net.
  22. ↑ U-751. uboat.net.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Jackson 1
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Moyes 1967, p. 7.
  25. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 7, 10.
  26. ↑ Roberts 1978, pp. 58–59.

Bibliography

  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).

External links

Template:Armstrong Whitworth aircraft Template:RAF WWII Strategic Bombing

Lua error in Module:Authority_control at line 159: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).

Retrieved from "https://www.alfawiki.org/index.php?title=Armstrong_Whitworth_Whitley&oldid=77351"