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Avro Lincoln

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Avro
Company typeAircraft manufacturer
IndustryAerospace
Founded1910 in United Kingdom
FounderAlliott Verdon Roe
Defunct1963 (merged into Hawker Siddeley)
FateMerged into Hawker Siddeley Aviation
SuccessorHawker Siddeley Aviation
Headquarters
Manchester
,
United Kingdom
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Roy Chadwick (chief designer)
ProductsAircraft, including Avro Lancaster, Avro Lincoln, Avro Shackleton
ParentHawker Siddeley Group (from 1963)


Template:Infobox aircraft

The Avro Type 694 Lincoln represents a British heavy bomber powered by four piston engines, which made its inaugural flight on 9 June 1944. Evolving from the Avro Lancaster, its initial versions were designated as the Lancaster IV and V, later renamed to Lincoln I and II. This aircraft was the final piston-driven bomber operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF); although the subsequent Avro Shackleton also used piston engines, it served primarily in maritime patrol roles rather than as a bomber.

Achieving operational readiness by August 1945, the Lincoln was originally assigned to the Tiger Force, a Commonwealth heavy bomber contingent intended for deployment against Japan during the concluding phase of the Second World War. However, hostilities ceased before it could be engaged in combat. Despite this, production continued, and the Lincoln was procured in significant numbers, gradually supplanting the Lancaster within RAF squadrons throughout the late 1940s.

Throughout the 1950s, the Lincoln participated in active missions. RAF units equipped with this bomber took part in counter-insurgency operations against guerrilla fighters during Kenya's Mau Mau Uprising. Both the RAF and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) employed Lincolns during the Malayan Emergency. Beyond combat roles, the aircraft also fulfilled extensive peacetime duties with the RAF, RAAF, and the Argentine Air Force. Additionally, some Lincolns were adapted for civilian purposes, including serving as aerial platforms for aero-engine testing.

Within RAF service, Lincolns were eventually phased out in favour of jet-powered bombers. The last operational Lincolns were retired by Argentina in 1967.

Origins

The Avro Lincoln emerged from a design initiative led by Roy Chadwick, building upon the earlier Lancaster platform to meet Specification B.14/43 requirements.[1][2] Initially referred to as Lancaster IV and Lancaster V, this aircraft retained many similarities to its predecessor but incorporated multiple enhancements. These included strengthened wings with a greater span and higher aspect ratio (10.30 compared to 8.02), alongside two-stage supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 engines housed within Universal Power Plant (UPP) units.[3][2] The fuselage was enlarged to accommodate increased fuel capacity and bomb loads, enabling carriage of up to eleven tons of ordnance and equipment such as the Grand Slam bomb. It also featured improved performance parameters over the Lancaster, including a maximum operational ceiling around 35,000 ft (6.6 mi; 11 km) and an extended range reaching approximately 4,450 miles (7,160 km).[4][3]

File:Avro 694 Lincoln B.2 RF342 CRFD 15.10.66 edited-3.jpg
RAF Lincoln B.2 operated by Napier's for icing research until 1967 (photo from 1966)

The prototype initially designated Lancaster IV and subsequently renamed Lincoln I was constructed by Avro’s experimental flight division at Manchester’s Ringway Airport.[5] Aviation historian Kev Delve notes that development proceeded without significant difficulties.[1] The prototype completed its first flight on 9 June 1944 from Ringway.[6][7] Flight testing demonstrated favourable handling characteristics.[5] Production of the first operational Lincoln commenced in February 1945.[5]

Manufacturing primarily took place at Avro’s factories in Woodford, Cheshire and Chadderton, Lancashire; additional assembly was carried out by Armstrong Whitworth at their Coventry plant. Production lines were also established in Canada and Australia; however, Canadian manufacturing ceased after only one unit was completed due to wartime termination. Australian-built Lincolns were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force.

Following World War II’s conclusion in early 1945, the British Government initiated demobilisation measures that included significant reductions within the armed forces and disbandment of numerous RAF squadrons.[1] Emphasis shifted towards prioritising fewer but more capable aircraft to fulfil operational roles effectively; although there was no immediate pressure to introduce new types rapidly, selective procurement aligned with this strategy continued.[1] In line with these objectives, the British Air Ministry issued Specification B.14/43 aiming to develop an advanced piston-engine heavy bomber capable of replacing wartime four-engine types such as the Short Stirling, Handley Page Halifax, and Avro Lancaster.[1]

Further advancements

Victory Aircraft in Canada completed one Lincoln B Mk XV model; however, a subsequent order for six RCAF-specific variants was cancelled soon after the conclusion of World War II. Alongside two additional Lincoln aircraft (Mk I and Mk II) on loan from the RAF, the RCAF conducted a brief postwar evaluation of the type. The Lancaster V, also known as the Lincoln II, was primarily distinguished by its installation of Merlin 68A engines.

Before the Lincoln's development, the Australian government had already planned for its Department of Aircraft Production (DAP), later renamed the Government Aircraft Factory (GAF), to build the earlier Lancaster Mk III. Instead, it was decided to produce a Lincoln I variant, designated the Lincoln Mk 30, intended to replace the Consolidated Liberators. Manufactured between 1946 and 1949, this aircraft remains the largest ever built in Australia. The RAAF placed orders for 85 Mk 30 Lincolns, although only 73 were ultimately produced.

File:AvroLincolnA73-20.jpg
Lincoln A73-20 during a test flight. Both starboard engines have their propeller blades feathered

The initial five Australian Lincolns (A73–1 through A73–5) were assembled at Fishermans Bend using predominantly British-sourced components. The first flight of A73-1 occurred on 17 March 1946; meanwhile, the first fully Australian-built Lincoln, A73-6, was officially delivered in November that same year. Initially equipped with four Merlin 85 engines, the Mk 30 later adopted a mixed powerplant configuration featuring two outer Merlin 66s and two inner Merlin 85s. An enhanced variant, the Lincoln Mk 30A, was fitted with four Merlin 102 engines.

In the 1950s, several Mk 30 aircraft were extensively modified by the RAAF for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) roles and re-designated as Lincoln GR.Mk 31. These versions featured a nose extension of approximately 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) to accommodate acoustic submarine detection equipment and its operators. They also incorporated larger fuel tanks to enable a flight endurance of up to 13 hours and a modified bomb bay configured for torpedo carriage. Pilots reported that landing the Lincoln Mk 31 at night was particularly challenging due to its tailwheel undercarriage and elongated nose obstructing runway visibility. In 1952, eighteen aircraft were converted to this configuration and assigned new serial numbers accordingly. Ten of these were later upgraded to MR.Mk 31 standards with improved radar systems.

The Lincoln also served as a basis for other aircraft developments. The Avro Shackleton, designed specifically for maritime patrol duties, was produced for both the RAF and South African Air Force (SAAF). Furthermore, Avro pursued a commercial airliner project known as the Tudor, which incorporated elements from the Lincoln such as its wings combined with new features like a pressurized fuselage to support passenger transport operations.

Royal Air Force

File:Avro Lincoln of 1 SQN RAAF at RAF Tengah in 1950.jpg
Formation of the initial deployment of No. 1 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force at RAF Tengah, Singapore, August 1950

The RAF introduced its first Lincoln in 1945, delivered to No. 57 Squadron stationed at RAF East Kirkby, Lincolnshire. In the same year, August 1945, No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron started transitioning to the Lincoln at RAF Spilsby, Lincolnshire. However, only three Lincolns were received by No. 75 (NZ) Squadron before VJ Day, after which the squadron was swiftly disbanded.[5]

Following World War II, the Lincoln rapidly became the main bomber for many RAF squadrons. Close to 600 Lincolns were produced to outfit 29 RAF squadrons, primarily located within the United Kingdom. These aircraft were supplemented and partially succeeded by 88 Boeing Washingtons on loan from the USAF, which offered extended range capabilities, allowing strikes deep into territories behind the Iron Curtain.[8] A limited number remained operational with Nos 7, 83, and 97 Squadrons until late 1955, after which they were retired in favor of the first generation of V bombers.

Throughout the 1950s, RAF Lincolns took part in operations in Kenya targeting the Mau-Mau insurgency while operating from Eastleigh. The type was also deployed during the Malayan Emergency against insurgents associated with the Malayan Communist Party. In this theater, RAF Lincolns operated out of both Changi Air Base and Tengah Air Base. Over their 7+1⁄2 years of deployment there, these aircraft flew more than 3,000 sorties and delivered approximately half a million pounds of bombs—accounting for 85 percent of all bombs dropped during the conflict.[9]

File:RAAF Avro Lincoln dropping bombs over Malaya, 1954.jpg
RAAF Lincoln bomber releasing 500 lb (230 kg) bombs on communist positions during the Malayan Emergency, circa 1954

On March 12, 1953, an RAF Lincoln (RF531 "C") from the Central Gunnery School was downed roughly 20 mi (32 km) northeast of Lüneburg, Germany by multiple Soviet MiG-15 fighters while conducting a radar reconnaissance mission en route to Berlin, resulting in the loss of all seven crew members.[10]

In November 1955, a detachment of four Lincolns from No. 7 Squadron RAF was assigned to British Middle Eastern territories. While stationed in Bahrain, they conducted border surveillance over the then Trucial States amid tensions related to the Buraimi dispute. Following No. 7 Squadron’s disbandment in December that year, these crews and aircraft were re-designated as No. 1426 Flight RAF, officially functioning as a photographic reconnaissance unit before deployment to Aden, where they undertook patrols preceding the onset of the Aden Emergency.

As wear and aging reduced their operational viability, RAF Lincolns were gradually replaced by various jet-powered bombers. Bomber Command phased out Lincolns beginning in the mid-1950s; by 1963 jet bombers had fully supplanted them. The final RAF Lincolns served with No. 151 Squadron under Signals Command at RAF Watton, Norfolk, retiring on March 12, 1963.[11][12][13]

Royal Australian Air Force

Starting in late 1946, Australian-manufactured Lincolns were introduced into No. 82 Wing, stationed at RAAF Base Amberley, Ipswich, Queensland. This model rapidly replaced the Liberator bombers previously flown by 12, 21, and 23 Squadrons. In February 1948, these squadrons were redesignated as 1, 2, and 6 Squadrons, respectively. Additionally, a fourth Lincoln squadron, No. 10, was established on 17 March 1949 at RAAF Townsville with a focus on reconnaissance missions.

Throughout the 1950s, Lincolns of the RAAF took part in combat operations in Malaya, operating alongside Royal Air Force units equipped with the same type. No.1 Squadron’s B.Mk 30 Lincolns were deployed at Tengah airbase for the entire duration of the Malayan campaign.

The Lincolns assigned to No.10 Squadron at RAAF Base Townsville, located in Garbutt, Queensland, were withdrawn prematurely in 1961 due to corrosion detected in the wing spars. The Lincoln MR.Mk 31 represents the last variant to remain in active service within Australia.

Argentine Air Force

Avro Lincoln
Argentine Air Force Lincoln B.2, preserved at the "National Aeronautics Museum", Argentina

Beginning in 1947, the Fuerza Aerea Argentina operated the Lincoln bomber; the country acquired a total of thirty Lincolns—eighteen newly constructed and twelve ex-RAF units—alongside fifteen used Lancasters. The introduction of the Lincoln established Argentina as possessing the most formidable bombing capability on the South American continent. That year, the aircraft entered service with I Grupo de Bombardeo under V Brigada Aérea. By early 1965, eleven remained operational, with most withdrawn from service over the following year. The final retirement of Lincolns occurred in 1967.

Argentine Lincolns were actively employed in bombing sorties against internal insurgents. They saw action during an attempted military coup in September 1951 and were utilized by both loyalist and rebel factions throughout the 1955 Revolución Libertadora, which ultimately ousted President Juan Perón.

In addition to combat roles, Argentine Lincolns supported supply airdrops for operations in the Antarctic region. In 1948, one bomber was sent back to Avro at RAF Langar in Nottinghamshire for modifications enabling Antarctic missions; these alterations included fitting Lancastrian-style nose and tail cones, installing extra fuel tanks, and removing all armaments. This aircraft became known as the first Avro Lincolnian. Following these changes, it was registered as a civilian plane named Cruz del Sur and conducted its inaugural supply flight to Antarctica’s San Martín Base in December 1951.

Use in aero-engine development

File:Rolls-Royce Tyne Avro Lincoln Farnborough 1956.jpg
Avro Lincoln test aircraft G-37-1 at the 1956 Farnborough SBAC Show, demonstrating flight powered exclusively by its nose-mounted Rolls-Royce Tyne engine

The Lincoln was commonly utilized as a testbed for pioneering jet engine projects. Aircraft RF403, RE339/G, and SX972 were equipped with two Armstrong Siddeley Python turboprop engines mounted outboard in place of the original Merlins, supporting the ballistic casing drop tests for the Blue Danube atomic bomb.[14] Further modifications to SX972 enabled it to operate with a pair of Bristol Proteus turboprops. Similarly, RA716/G was fitted with two Bristol Theseus turboprops in the same outboard positions and later transitioned to using Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines instead of turboprops. The Lincoln testbed RF530 retained its four Merlin engines but incorporated a nose-mounted Napier Naiad turboprop. Subsequently, it flew under the civilian "Class B" test registration G-37-1, featuring a nose-mounted Rolls-Royce Tyne engine showcased at the 1956 Society of British Aircraft Constructors (SBAC) exhibition, performing a low-level flypast powered solely by the Tyne while all four Merlins were shut down with propellers feathered.[15] The SX973 was modified to carry a nose-mounted Napier Nomad diesel turbo-compound powerplant.[16] Meanwhile, RA643 operated with a Bristol Phoebus turbojet installed in its bomb bay, and SX971 featured an afterburning Rolls-Royce Derwent mounted ventrally.[17]

Commercial operations

Between 1948 and 1962, two Lincoln II aircraft were employed by D. Napier & Son Ltd. to conduct icing condition research. A transport adaptation of the Lincoln II, which incorporated the Lancastrian’s streamlined nose and tail cones along with a ventral cargo pod, was designated as the Avro 695 Lincolnian.[18]

One Lincoln Freighter Mk.2, registered G-ALPF and formerly RAF RE290, was converted by Airflight Ltd. and utilized by Surrey Flying Services Ltd. during the Berlin Air Lift.[18]

Field Aircraft Services undertook four Lincolnian conversions intended for meat transportation in Paraguay; however, these aircraft were never delivered and were eventually dismantled.[18]

Variants

Avro Type 694
Three prototypes constructed to meet Air Ministry Specification 14/43
Lincoln I
RAF long-range bomber powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 inline piston engines producing 1,750 hp (1,305 kW) each.[19]
Lincoln II
Long-range bomber variant for the RAF fitted with four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines—types 66, 68A, and 300—manufactured by Avro, Armstrong-Whitworth, and Vickers-Metropolitan.[20]
Lincoln III
Designed as a maritime patrol and anti-submarine warfare aircraft; this version evolved into the Avro Shackleton.[21]
Lincoln IV
A modification of the Lincoln II equipped with Merlin 85 engines.[21]
Lincoln U.5
Drone conversion of the Lincoln II; only two units were altered.[22]
Lincoln Mk 15 (B Mk XV)
A single aircraft produced by Victory Aircraft in Canada received this designation.[23]
Lincoln Mk 30
Long-range bomber model developed for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).[23]
Lincoln Mk 30A
RAAF long-range bomber variant featuring an extended nose and locally produced Merlin 102 engines.[23]
Lincoln Mk 31 (GR 31)
General reconnaissance adaptation of the Mk.30 for RAAF service with an elongated nose section.[24][23] Powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines—either type 85 or the more powerful Merlin 102 rated at approximately 1,650 h.p.
Lincoln MR 31
Anti-submarine warfare and maritime reconnaissance version derived from the Mk 31 for RAAF use.[24]
Avro 695 Lincolnian
A transport variant closely related to the design of the Avro Lancastrian
Lincoln ASR.3
The initial designation for what became the Avro Shackleton, which was developed from the Lincoln platform.

Operators

File:Avro lincoln desfile.jpg
A group of Argentinian Lincoln bombers flying closely together, circa 1950
File:2 Sqn and 6 Sqn RAAF Avro Lincolns in 1953.jpg
Nine Australian Lincoln bombers flying in formation, 1953
Template:ARG
  • Argentine Air Force
    • I Grupo de Bombardeo within V Brigada Aerea.
    • Fuerza Aerea de Tareas Antarticas (FATA)
Template:AUS
File:Canadian Red Ensign (1921–1957).svg Canada
Template:UK
  • Bomb Ballistic Unit operated from1947–48 located atRAF Woodbridge
  • Bomber Command Bombing School (BCBS) ran between1952–1960 based atRAFSampton andLindholme, later replaced by theHandley Page Hastings
  • Central Navigation and Control School existed from1951–55 located atRAF Shawbury
  • Coastal Command Gunnery School operated in1955 out ofRAF Leconfield
  • Empire Air Navigation School functioned during1947–48 atRAFSawbury
  • Empire Air Navigation School also ran from1946–50 located atRAF Manby
  • Empire Central Flying School existed during1945–46 based out ofRAF Hullavington
  • Empire Radio School was active between1947–50 operating out ofRAF Debden
  • Radar Research Flight operated from1951–57 based atRAFWyton
  • Flight Refuelling Ltd (FRL), part ofCobham plc, utilized some modified Lincolns as tanker aircraft for aerial refueling operations.
  • Empire Test Pilots School

Accidents and incidents

Main article: List of accidents and incidents involving the Avro Lincoln

Aircraft on display

File:B-010 Avro Lincoln (7313012862).jpg
Argentine Air Force Lincoln B.2 exhibited at the National Museum of Aeronautics
File:RAF Museum Cosford - DSC08371.JPG
An RAF Lincoln preserved on static exhibition at the RAF Museum Cosford, Shropshire, 2010

Specifications (Lincoln I)

File:RAAF Avro Lincoln cockpit.jpg
Cockpit view of an Avro Lincoln
File:Avro Lincoln BII Bomb Bay (10629819276).jpg
Bomb bay compartment of a preserved Lincoln

Template:Aircraft specs

See also

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Notes

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named delve 248
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named mat kit gra 58 59
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named delve 248 249
  4. ↑ Nathan, Stuart. "February 1946: the last of the piston-engined bombers." The Engineer, 4 February 2015.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named mat kit gra 59
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named delve 249
  7. ↑ Scholefield 1998, p. 37.
  8. ↑ Mantelli, Brown, Kittel and Graf 2017, pp. 59–60.
  9. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named World Aircraft Information Files
  10. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  11. ↑ Jackson 1990, p. 406.
  12. ↑ "Avro Lincoln B2." Royal Air Force Museum, Retrieved: 3 March 2015.
  13. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named mat kit gra 60
  14. ↑ The National Archives, London, file ES 1/44.
  15. ↑ "No. 4610. Avro 694 Lincoln B. Mk. II (G-37-1)." Maurice Collier Collection. Retrieved: 26 December 2009.
  16. ↑ Grant 2003
  17. ↑ Franks 2000, pp. 97–99.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named mat kit gra 61
  19. ↑ Mantelli, Brown, Kittel and Graf 2017, p. 63.
  20. ↑ Mantelli, Brown, Kittel and Graf 2017, pp. 63–64.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Mantelli, Brown, Kittel and Graf 2017, p. 64.
  22. ↑ Franks 2000, p. 88.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Mantelli, Brown, Kittel and Graf 2017, p. 65.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Wilson 1994, p. 216.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 "Individual History: Avro Lincoln B.2 RF398/8376M – Museum Accession Number 84/A/1182." Royal Air Force Museum, 2012.

Bibliography

  • Buttler, Tony. Avro Lincoln (Warpaint series no. 34). Denbigh East, Bletchley, UK: Hall Park Books, 2000.
  • Delve, Ken. Bomber Command: 1936–1968: An Operational & Historical Record. Pen and Sword, 2005. ISBN 1-47381-259-3.
  • Franks, Richard A. The Avro Lancaster, Manchester and Lincoln. Bedford, United Kingdom: SAM Publications, 2000. ISBN 0-9533465-3-6.
  • Garbett, Mike and Brian Goulding. Lincoln at War. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1979. ISBN 0-7110-0847-7.
  • Grant, Jim. Lincoln Test Beds Model Aircraft Monthly, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2003, SAM Publications, Template:ISSN
  • Jackson, A.J. Avro Aircraft since 1908, 2nd edition. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1990. ISBN 0-85177-834-8.
  • Lake, Alan. Flying Units Of The RAF. London: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1999. ISBN 1-84037-086-6.
  • Lake, Jon. Type Analysis: Avro Lincoln International Air Power Review, Volume 1, 1997, Airtime publishing. Template:ISSN.
  • Mantelli, Brown, Kittel, Graf. "Avro Lancaster – Handley Page Halifax – Short S.29 Stirling." Edizioni R.E.I., 2017. ISBN 2-37297-333-9.
  • Marino, Atilo, Vladimiro Celleto and Javier Mosquera. "Argentina's 'Heavies': Avro Lancaster, Lincoln and Lancastrian in Military Service: Part One." Air Enthusiast, No. 95, September/October 2001, pp. 64–70. Template:ISSN.
  • Marino, Atilo, Vladimiro Celleto and Javier Mosquera. "Argentina's 'Heavies': Avro Lancaster, Lincoln and Lancastrian in Military Service: Part Two." Air Enthusiast, No. 97, January/February 2002, pp. 36–43. Template:ISSN.
  • Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam, 1994. ISBN 0-85177-861-5.
  • Scholefield, R.A. Manchester Airport. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-7509-1954-X.
  • Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57. London: Putnam, 1957.
  • Wilson, Stewart. Military Aircraft of Australia. Weston Creek, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1994. ISBN 1875671080
  • Wilson, Stewart. Lincoln, Canberra and F-111 in Australian Service. Weston Creek, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1989. ISBN 0-9587978-3-8.
  • World Aircraft Information Files, File #022. London: Bright Star Publishing, 1997.

Further reading

  • Benedetto, Fernando. Avro Lancaster, Lancastrian & Lincoln. Edited by Jorge Felix Núñez Padin. Bahía Blanca, Argentina: Fuerzas Aeronavales (Serie Fuerza Aérea Vol. 17), 2009. ISBN 978-987-1682-00-3.

External links

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