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Christie's

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Christie's
Company typeSubsidiary
IndustryArt, auctions
Founded1766; 260 years ago (1766)
FounderJames Christie
Headquarters
London
,
England
Area served
Global
Key people
RevenueDecrease Template:US$ billion (2024)[1]
OwnerFrançois Pinault[2]
ParentGroupe Artémis
Websitechristies.com
File:Christie's (Manhattan, New York) 001.jpg
Christie's U.S. location at Rockefeller Center in New York

Christie's is a UK auction house established in 1766 by James Christie. Its primary location is on King Street, St James's in London, with additional galleries situated in New York, Paris, Hong Kong, Milan, Geneva, Shanghai, and Dubai.[3] The company operates under the ownership of Groupe Artémis, the investment group controlled by François Pinault.[4][5] In the year 2022, Christie's achieved record sales totaling US$8.4 billion in art and luxury items, marking the highest revenue ever recorded by an auction house.[6] Notably, on 15 November 2017 at Christie's New York location, the Salvator Mundi painting was auctioned for $450 million to Saudi Prince Badr bin Abdullah Al Saud, setting the record for the most expensive painting ever sold.[7]

History

File:Peep-at-Christies-Gillray.jpeg
In A Peep at Christies (1799), James Gillray humorously depicted actress Elizabeth Farren alongside huntsman Lord Derby as they appraised artworks suited to their individual preferences and statures.

Founding

File:Thomas Gainsborough (English - Portrait of James Christie (1730 - 1803) - Google Art Project.jpg
Portrait of James Christie painted by Thomas Gainsborough in 1778

According to official company records, the inaugural auction led by founder James Christie (1730–1803) took place in London on 5 December 1766,[8] with the earliest surviving auction catalogue dating from the same month. Nonetheless, other sources indicate that James Christie had been leasing auction rooms since 1762, and advertisements for Christie's auctions have been documented as early as 1759.[9] Upon his passing, his son, James Christie the Younger (1773–1831), assumed control of the enterprise.[10]

20th century

File:Microcosm of London Plate 006 - Auction Room, Christie's.jpg
An engraving titled The Microcosm of London (1808) illustrating Christie's auction room

Between 1973 and 1999, Christie's operated as a publicly traded company listed on the London Stock Exchange. In 1974, Jo Floyd was named chairman and held this position at Christie's International plc from 1976 until 1988, after which he was succeeded by Lord Carrington. Floyd continued to serve as a non-executive director until 1992.[11] The firm conducted its initial U.S. auction in 1977. Since 1989, when it held a 42% share of the auction market, Christie's has experienced gradual yet consistent expansion.[12]

File:Clay tablet, record of barley and emmer. Late Uruk period, 3300-3100 BCE. Purchased via Christie's, no provenance.jpg
A clay tablet documenting barley and emmer from the Late Uruk period (3300–3100 BCE), acquired through Christie's in 1989 without provenance. British Museum

In May of 1990, Christie's altered a longstanding practice by offering guaranteed minimum prices for certain artwork collections during its auctions.[13] By 1996, Christie's sales surpassed those of Sotheby's for the first time since 1954.[14] Nevertheless, profit growth lagged behind sales increases;[2] from 1993 through 1997, annual pretax earnings for Christie's hovered around $60 million, while Sotheby's averaged approximately $265 million in pretax profits during the same period.[15]

In 1993, Christie's acquired London's Spink & Son gallery for $10.9 million; this gallery specialized in Oriental art and British paintings and continued to operate independently. The purchase of Leger Gallery followed in 1996 for $3.3 million; these two entities were merged into Spink-Leger.[16] Spink-Leger ceased operations in 2002. To strengthen its position against Sotheby's in real estate services, Christie's acquired Great Estates in 1995—then North America's largest independent estate agency network—and rebranded it as Christie's Great Estates Inc.[12]

In December of 1997, with Lord Hindlip as chairman, Christie's explored selling itself but failed to secure an acceptable offer after two months of negotiations with an investment group led by SBC Warburg Dillon Read.[15] Subsequently, in May 1998, Groupe Artémis S.A., owned by François Pinault, initially purchased a 29.1% stake for $243.2 million before acquiring full ownership in a transaction valuing the company at $1.2 billion.[2] Since then, Christie's has ceased reporting profits publicly but continues to disclose sales figures biannually. Their accounting approach complies with UK standards by converting foreign results using an average exchange rate weighted daily according to sales volume throughout the fiscal year.[17]

21st century

Christie's France conducted its inaugural auction in Paris in 2002.

Similar to Sotheby's, Christie's expanded its involvement in prominent private deals. In 2006, the auction house reportedly provided a $21 million guarantee to the Donald Judd Foundation and showcased Judd's creations in a five-week exhibition that subsequently earned an AICA award for "Best Installation in an Alternative Space." The following year, Christie's facilitated a $68 million transaction transferring Thomas Eakins' The Gross Clinic (1875) from Jefferson Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia to joint ownership by the Philadelphia Museum of Art and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Additionally, in 2007, Christie's acquired the Haunch of Venison gallery as a subsidiary.

On 28 December 2008, The Sunday Times revealed that François Pinault's financial difficulties led him to contemplate selling Christie's, with several private equity firms reportedly expressing interest. By January 2009, Christie's employed approximately 2,100 staff globally; however, due to a global art market downturn, layoffs and consultant reductions were imminent. Subsequent reports indicated around 300 job cuts. As sales of premier Impressionist, Modern, and contemporary artworks dropped sharply from $739 million the previous year to $248.8 million, a second wave of workforce reductions commenced after May 2009.

By 2012, contemporary art had overtaken Impressionist works—which had dominated during the 1980s—as Christie's leading category, while Asian art ranked third in revenue. With traditional auction income declining, treaty sales surged by 53% to £413.4 million ($665 million) in the first half of 2012, accounting for over 18% of total turnover. The company also began emphasizing themed curated events rather than focusing solely on art periods or classifications.

In a comprehensive review during 2017, Christie's announced it would reduce its workforce by 250 employees—approximately 12%—mainly affecting operations in Britain and Europe.

June 2021 marked Christie's Paris hosting its first sale dedicated exclusively to women artists, featuring notable works such as Louise Moillon's Nature morte aux raisins et pêches.

In 2022, Christie's achieved record-breaking sales of $8.4 billion in art and luxury items, setting an unprecedented benchmark for any auction house.

In September 2024, Christie's agreed to acquire Gooding & Company, a renowned American classic car auction firm.

Commissions

Between 2008 and 2013, Christie's applied a commission structure of 25 percent on the initial $50,000; 20 percent on amounts ranging from $50,001 to $1 million; and 12 percent on any sum exceeding that. Starting in 2013, the rates were adjusted to 25 percent for the first $75,000; 20 percent for amounts between $75,001 and $1.5 million; and 12 percent for all remaining amounts.

As of 2023, Christie's buyer's premium consists of 26 percent on the hammer price for each lot up to £800,000 (or US$1,000,000), followed by 21 percent on the hammer price from £800,001 (US$1,000,001) through £4,500,000 (US$6,000,000), and 15 percent on any amount above that threshold.

Locations

By 2023, Christie's maintained offices across 46 countries globally, with auction venues located in London, New York, Paris, Geneva, Milan, Amsterdam, Dubai, Hong Kong, and Shanghai.

Europe

The primary auction house for Christie's is situated on King Street in St. James's, London—a location it has occupied since 1823. Additionally, Christie's operated a second London venue in South Kensington from its opening in 1975 until its permanent closure in July 2017. This latter site mainly catered to the mid-tier market segment. The decision to close South Kensington was part of a restructuring initiative announced earlier that year and was influenced by a significant drop in sales between 2015 and 2016 alongside the company's growth in online auction activities.

In early 2017, Christie's also disclosed intentions to reduce its footprint in Amsterdam.

Americas

Christie's established its inaugural international branch in New York City in 1977 under the leadership of then-Chairman Stephen Lash. The initial location was within the Delmonico's Hotel grand ballroom on Park Avenue’s second floor. Later, in 1997, Christie's secured a 30-year lease spanning approximately 300,000 square feet at Rockefeller Center for $40 million.

Until its closure in 2001, Christie's East division—focused on lower-priced artworks and objects—was housed at 219 East 67th Street. In addition, the company acquired a townhouse on East 59th Street in Manhattan in 1996 to serve as a private gallery space where specialists could present art confidentially to clients for private treaty sales.

Christie's expanded its presence by opening an auction venue in Beverly Hills in 1997. In April 2017, it relocated to a new two-story flagship facility covering around 4,500 square feet in Beverly Hills, designed by the architecture firm wHY.

Asia

Since 2014, Christie's has maintained a presence within Hong Kong's Alexandra House. In 2021, the auction house revealed intentions to relocate its Hong Kong headquarters by 2024 to The Henderson, an upscale tower designed by Zaha Hadid, where it will introduce continuous auctions throughout the year. Spanning over 50,000 sq ft (4,600 m2) across four levels, this new venue, featuring a dedicated saleroom and exhibition galleries, rivals the size of Christie's main office in London.

Notable auctions

File:Pontormo (Jacopo Carucci) (Italian, Florentine) - Portrait of a Halberdier (Francesco Guardi?) - Google Art Project.jpg
Pontormo, Portrait of a Halberdier, 1528–1530. Sold by Christie's for US$35.2 million in 1989. (J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles)
  • The 1848 auction of Stowe House contents, following the financial collapse of the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, was among the earliest and most publicized British country house content sales. It generated £75,400 and included the Chandos portrait of William Shakespeare.
  • The collection from Hamilton Palace was sold in 1882 for £332,000.
  • In March 1987, Vincent van Gogh's Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers achieved a then-record $39.9 million at Christie's, becoming the highest-priced painting globally at that time—over three times the previous record.
  • During the November 1987 auction at the Royal Albert Hall, Christie's set a world record by selling a Bugatti Royale automobile for £5.5 million.
  • Pontormo's Portrait of a Halberdier was acquired by the J. Paul Getty Museum in May 1989 for $35.2 million, surpassing prior records for Old Master paintings at auction.
  • On 11 November 1994, Bill Gates purchased the Codex Leicester for US$30,802,500.
  • Following legal resolution over ownership disputes, Christie's New York sold the renowned Archimedes Palimpsest in 1998.
  • A necklace composed of 41 natural graduated pearls once owned by Barbara Hutton was auctioned in Geneva in November 1999 for $1,476,000.
  • In June 2001, Elton John auctioned twenty vehicles at Christie's due to infrequent use while traveling abroad. The sale included a 1993 Jaguar XJ220 that fetched £234,750 and various Ferraris, Rolls-Royces, and Bentleys, raising close to £2 million.
  • A single Imperial porcelain bowl from the Qing dynasty, also previously owned by Barbara Hutton, was sold for US$19.5 million at Christie's Hong Kong in 2006.
  • The Hammer Stradivarius violin was auctioned on 16 May 2006 for a then-record $3.54 million—the highest price paid publicly for any musical instrument at that point.
  • Four paintings by Gustav Klimt were sold collectively for $192 million in November 2006 after being restored to Jewish heirs by Austria following extensive litigation.
  • One of three Givenchy black dresses worn by Audrey Hepburn in Breakfast at Tiffany's fetched £467,200 at Christie's South Kensington in December 2006.
  • Controversy arose in 2006 when Christie's auctioned artifacts known to have been illicitly removed from Bulgaria.
  • An album featuring eight ink-on-paper leaves by Ming dynasty court artist Dong Qichang achieved a world auction record price of US$6.24 million during Christie's Hong Kong Chinese Paintings Auction in November 2007.
  • In 2008, an ink wash painting depicting Gundam by artist Tenmyouya Hisashi, created in 2005, sold for US$600,000 at Christie's Hong Kong auction.
  • Claude Monet's Le Bassin Aux Nymphéas was sold for $80.4 million in June 2008—a record sum for Monet’s work.
  • Over three days in February 2009 in Paris, Christie's auctioned the extensive private collection of designers Yves Saint Laurent and Pierre Bergé, raising a record €370 million. This marked the most valuable private collection ever offered at auction and set new price records for artists such as Brâncuși, Matisse, and Mondrian. Among notable sales was Irish designer Eileen Gray's "Dragons" armchair, which sold for €21.9 million—the highest price recorded for twentieth-century decorative art.
  • The sale of two imperial bronze zodiac sculptures collected by Yves Saint Laurent sparked controversy in 2009; these items had been looted from Beijing’s Old Summer Palace during the Second Opium War by French and British forces and fetched US$36 million.
  • In November 2009 at Christie's Hong Kong Fine Modern Chinese Paintings sale, Fu Baoshi’s Landscape inspired by Dufu's Poetic Sentiments set a world record for the artist with a price of HK$60 million (US$7.7 million).
  • Pablo Picasso's Nude, Green Leaves and Bust brought $106.5 million on 4 May 2010 at Christie's—ranking among the most expensive paintings ever auctioned.
  • Amedeo Modigliani's limestone sculpture Tête, depicting a woman's head, sold on 14 June 2010 for $52.6 million—making it one of the priciest sculptures ever sold and then France’s highest-priced artwork sale.
  • On 18 April 2012, the silver cup awarded to Greek marathon champion Spyridon Louis during the inaugural modern Olympic Games in Athens (1896) fetched £541,250—setting an auction record for Olympic memorabilia.
  • George Washington’s personally annotated copy of the Acts Passed at a Congress of the United States of America from 1789—which includes both the U.S. Constitution and an early draft of the Bill of Rights—sold on 22 June 2012 at Christie's for $9.83 million (including fees) to The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association; this set a new record for documents sold at auction.
  • Francis Bacon’s triptych Three Studies of Lucian Freud was acquired on 12 November 2013 for $142.4 million (including buyer’s premium), momentarily becoming the highest-priced artwork ever sold at auction nominally.
  • On 11 May 2015, Picasso’s Les Femmes d'Alger ("Version O") achieved $179.3 million at Christie's New York—the most expensive artwork ever sold there. Later that year in November, Modigliani’s Nu Couché (1917–18) realized $170.4 million at Christie's New York—the second-highest amount paid for artwork at auction.
  • The Oppenheimer Blue diamond fetched CHF56.8 million ($57 million) in May 2016—a new world record price for jewelry sold at auction.
  • On 7 July 2016, Peter Paul Rubens’ painting Lot and his Daughters reached £44.88 million at Christie's—the highest price ever paid there for an Old Master painting.
  • A Patek Philippe Titanium wristwatch Ref. 5208T-010 sold on 11 November 2017 in Geneva for $6.23 million (CHF6.2 million), ranking among the priciest watches ever auctioned.
  • Leonardo da Vinci’s Salvator Mundi set an auction record when it sold on 15 November 2017 for $450.3 million including fees—the most expensive painting ever sold publicly.
  • A fragmentary bust of Tutankhamun was sold on 4 July 2019 for £4.7 million despite efforts by Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities to halt the sale over concerns about illicit removal from Egypt during the 1970s.
  • On 25 June 2020, a rare Timurid Quran manuscript described as "rare and breathtaking" realized £7 million with fees—ten times its estimated value—setting a record price paid for any Quran manuscript. Created likely within a Timurid prince’s court using gold-flecked paper imported from Ming China, this manuscript comprises some 534 folios featuring Arabic calligraphy; however, its provenance prior to the 1980s remains unknown and has drawn criticism regarding its removal context.
  • In October 2020, one of the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeletons named Stan sold at Christie's for $31.8 million—establishing a new world record price for dinosaur fossils or skeletons offered publicly.
  • Andy Warhol’s silkscreen piece Shot Sage Blue Marilyn fetched $195 million during Christie's New York sale in May 2022—making it both the priciest American artwork ever sold at auction and the highest-priced twentieth-century artwork sold publicly.
  • Between September and October 2022, Christie's hosted an auction featuring memorabilia from all twenty-five films of the James Bond franchise. Sixty-one lots including vehicles, watches, costumes, props, and posters raised nearly £7 million from buyers across twenty-eight countries; proceeds were distributed among more than forty-five charities.
  • The art collection belonging to Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen was auctioned at Christie's New York in November 2022—the largest art sale recorded—surpassing $1.5 billion total sales. Six works exceeded $100 million individually: Georges Seurat’s Les Poseuses Ensemble (Petite version) ($149M), Paul Cézanne’s La Montagne Sainte-Victoire ($138M), Vincent van Gogh’s Verger avec cyprès ($117M), Gustav Klimt’s Birch Forest ($105M), along with pieces by Botticelli, David Hockney, Roy Lichtenstein, Edward Hopper, Andy Warhol, Jasper Johns and Jan Brueghel the Younger; proceeds benefited undisclosed philanthropic causes.
  • In May 2023, jewellery once owned by Austrian billionaire Heidi Horten, who passed away in 2022, realized CHF180 million ($201 million)—setting a new benchmark as the most valuable single jewellery collection sold at auction. However, following objections from Jewish charities regarding Horten's wealth origins linked to Nazi-era activities, Christie's cancelled a subsequent scheduled sale planned for November that year.
  • In November 2024, a surrealist painting by Rene Magritte broke records when it was sold via Christie's New York for over $121 million—surpassing Magritte’s previous high mark of $79 million set two years earlier.
  • A painting titled Miss January (1997) by living artist Marlene Dumas established a new record for female artists with a final price of $13.6 million including fees during Christie's Twenty-First Century Evening sale held in New York in May 2025.

Price-fixing controversy in 2000

In 2000, accusations emerged regarding a price-fixing scheme involving Christie's and Sotheby's. Following these suspicions, Christie's executives reported potential commission-fixing collusion to the United States Department of Justice.

As a result, Christie's secured immunity from prosecution in the US after a longtime employee admitted involvement and collaborated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Shortly thereafter, several top executives at Sotheby's were dismissed. The principal responsibility was attributed to A. Alfred Taubman, then Sotheby's largest shareholder; both he and CEO Dede Brooks received prison sentences. Additionally, Christie's, Sotheby's, and their owners agreed to a civil settlement amounting to $512 million.

Issues with provenance of looted artworks

Christie's has faced criticism for what has been described as "a troubling record of insufficient transparency concerning provenance". In 2003, the auction house was scrutinized for its management of two artworks looted by the Nazis, which were claimed by descendants of the original Jewish owners. In one instance, Christie's initially refused to disclose to heirs the whereabouts of an Italian painting once owned by Jewish Viennese banker Heinrich Graf, seized by the Gestapo. This information was only revealed after the Jewish Community of Vienna successfully pursued legal action in the UK on behalf of Graf's American daughters in late 2004. In another case that same year, Christie's declined to inform a family that a consigned painting had been looted from Ulla and Moriz Rosenthal, a Jewish couple who perished in Auschwitz.

On 19 May 2020, Hobby Lobby, a craft supply retailer that had purchased artifacts for loan or donation to The Museum of the Bible, initiated a diversity lawsuit against Christie's concerning the private sale of the Gilgamesh tablet on 14 July 2014. The complaint alleged that Christie's was aware that the cuneiform tablet originating from Iraq had falsified provenance. In June 2020, Christie's withdrew four Greek and Roman antiquities from auction after it was discovered these items originated from locations associated with convicted antiquities traffickers. That same month, the auction house faced criticism for offering a Benin plaque and two Igbo alusi figures for sale. The plaque was linked to similar items taken during the Benin Expedition of 1897 and failed to sell at auction. The alusi figures were reportedly removed from Nigeria during the Nigerian Civil War and sold for €212,500 (after fees), below their estimated minimum value of €250,000. Christie's asserts it requires "verifiable documented provenance confirming that an object left its source country before 2000 or an applicable legal date between the country where the sale occurs and the source nation."

In November 2014, Christie's had to retract a prehistoric sculpture from Sardinia valued between $800,000 and $1.2 million that was consigned by US billionaire Michael Steinhardt. In 2021, Steinhardt received a lifetime ban on acquiring antiquities from the Manhattan district attorney's office after investigations revealed he had amassed artworks with unverified provenance over many years, including pieces linked to convicted art dealer Giacomo Medici. Following multiple search warrants since 2017, Steinhardt surrendered 180 illegally obtained antiquities valued at approximately $70 million. According to The Guardian, prosecutors stated: "For decades, Michael Steinhardt exhibited an insatiable appetite for plundered artifacts without regard for legality, authenticity of his acquisitions, or the profound cultural harm inflicted worldwide."

In February 2023, a French court mandated Christie's to return unconditionally the Dutch painting The Penitent Magdalene, attributed to Adriaen van der Werff (1707). This artwork had been looted in 1942 from Lionel Hauser in Paris and later sold without provenance documentation at Christie's London in April 2005. Initially, Christie's offered Hauser's heirs half of the sale proceeds; however, they rejected this offer and pursued legal action resulting in restitution.

Blockchain Applications in Auctions

Beginning in 2018, Christie's introduced "digital passports" secured on the blockchain for a limited group of private art buyers. These digital "ownership certificates" provided purchasers with an immutable and transparent provenance history of the artwork, accessible globally and protected from alteration or deletion.

Fast forward to October 2024, Christie's prominently displayed blockchain technology during two major auctions. On 2 October, Christie's New York presented An Eye Towards the Real: Photographs from the Collection of Ambassador Trevor Traina, featuring works by Diane Arbus and Cindy Sherman. Traina, a former U.S. ambassador to Austria and founder of the web3 wallet company Kresus, lent his collection for this event. Shortly thereafter, on 10 October, Christie's New York auctioned Ascend, a digital artwork by Ryan Koopmans and Alice Wexell. This sale marked the first occasion a piece inscribed using Bitcoin's Ordinals protocol was sold live at Christie's. The auction house regards this fusion of tangible and digital ownership as the future direction for art sales, offering buyers a more reliable and secure provenance verification.

Christie's Fine Art Storage Services (CFASS)

Christie's initiated its art storage services for external clients in 1984 with the establishment of a 100,000-square-foot brick warehouse in London. This facility was granted "Exempted Status" by HM Revenue and Customs, allowing imported goods to be stored without incurring import taxes or VAT. The storage operations are managed by Christie's wholly owned subsidiary, Christie's Fine Art Storage Services (CFASS).

In September 2008, Christie's secured a 50-year lease on an early 20th-century warehouse formerly belonging to the historic N.Y.D. Company located in Red Hook, Brooklyn. The company invested $30 million to transform this building into a six-story, 250,000-square-foot facility dedicated to art storage. Opened in 2010, the site boasts advanced security systems alongside climate controls that maintain a stable environment at approximately 70°Template:Huh and 50% relative humidity.

Positioned near the Upper Bay tidal area adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean, this Brooklyn storage center experienced at least one significant storm surge during Hurricane Sandy in 2012. Following the event, CFASS encountered client withdrawals and grievances related to damage sustained by stored artworks. In 2013, Axa Art Insurance initiated legal action in New York courts, accusing CFASS of "gross negligence" that led to harm of pieces collected by the late cellist Gregor Piatigorsky and his wife Jacqueline Rebecca Louise de Rothschild. Later that year, StarNet Insurance Co., representing the LeRoy Neiman Foundation and estate, filed another lawsuit in New York Supreme Court, alleging that CFASS's negligence resulted in over $10 million worth of damage to Neiman's artworks.

Educational and other initiatives

Christie's Education formerly provided master's degree courses in both London and New York; however, these programs were scheduled for discontinuation in 2019. Following the murder of George Floyd in 2020, Christie's acknowledged the art sector's insufficient racial diversity and conceded that their degree offerings had contributed to perpetuating such disparities.

Nonetheless, Christie's continues to deliver non-degree courses across locations including London, New York, Hong Kong, and Amsterdam, alongside online options. They also provide specialized certificates such as the Art Business Masterclass Certificate and the Luxury Masterclass Certificate.

In partnership with Bonhams, Christie's holds shares in the London-based Art Loss Register, a privately managed database utilized globally by law enforcement agencies to identify and recover stolen artworks.

Leadership

Since François Pinault's acquisition of Christie's, the company has been led by the following chief executives:

References

  1. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Carol Vogel (19 May 1998), Frenchman Seeks the Rest Of Christie's The New York Times.
  3. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  4. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  5. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  6. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  7. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  8. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  9. ↑ Gazetteer and London Daily Advertiser (London, England), 25 September 1762; Issue 10460
  10. ↑ M.A. Michael (2019). "Not Exactly a Connoisseur A New Portrait of James Christie". The British Art Journal (London: Robin Simon). 19:76.
  11. ↑ Sarah Lyall (27 February 1998), Jo Floyd, 74; Led Growth and Change at Christie's The New York Times.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Carol Vogel (11 February 1997), At the Wire, Auction Fans, It's, It's . . . Christie's! The New York Times.
  13. ↑ Rita Reif (12 March 1990), Christie's Reverses Stand on Price Guarantees The New York Times.
  14. ↑ Carol Vogel (6 May 1998), Frenchman Gets Big Stake In Christie's The New York Times.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Carol Vogel (19 February 1998), Christie's Ends Talks On Takeover By Swiss The New York Times.
  16. ↑ Carol Vogel (22 June 2001), Re: Real Estate The New York Times.
  17. ↑ Scott Reyburn (17 July 2012), Rothko, Private Sales Help Boost Christie's Revenue 13% Bloomberg.

Bibliography

  • J. Herbert, Inside Christie's, London, 1990 (ISBN 978-0340430439)
  • P. A. Colson, The Story of Christie's, London, 1950
  • H. C. Marillier, Christie's, 1766–1925, London, 1926
  • M. A. Michael, A Brief History of Christie's Education... , London, 2008 (ISBN 978-0955780707)
  • W. Roberts, Memorials of Christie's, 2 volumes, London, 1897
  • "Going Once." Phaidon Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0-7148-7202-5

External links

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