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De Havilland Comet

From Alfawiki
de Havilland
IndustryAerospace
Founded1920; 106 years ago (1920)
FounderSir Geoffrey de Havilland
Headquarters
Hatfield
,
United Kingdom
ProductsAircraft (including the DH.106 Comet)

Overview

The de Havilland DH.106 Comet represents the United Kingdom’s pioneering four-engine narrow body aircraft jet airliner, developed and produced by de Havilland. Recognised as the globe’s inaugural commercial jet airliner, the Comet 1 prototype took to the skies for the first time in 1949. Its design featured sleek aerodynamics, with four de Havilland Ghost turbojet engines embedded in the wing roots, a pressurised cabin, and notably large windows. At its launch in 1952, it provided passengers with a comparatively quiet and comfortable cabin environment, marking a significant advancement in commercial aviation.

Within twelve months following its introduction, the Comet experienced three highly publicised mid-air disasters. Investigations revealed that two of these incidents stemmed from structural failures caused by metal fatigue within the airframe, a condition that was not well comprehended at the time. The third accident was attributed to excessive stress on the airframe while navigating severe weather conditions. Consequently, the aircraft was grounded and subjected to rigorous testing. This scrutiny uncovered critical design and manufacturing deficiencies, including hazardous stress concentration points around square openings for ADF (automatic direction finder) antennas. These findings led to comprehensive redesign efforts incorporating strengthened structures and various modifications. Competing aircraft manufacturers subsequently integrated these insights into their own designs.

Despite never regaining its initial market momentum, the enhanced Comet 2 and the experimental Comet 3 paved the way for the extensively reengineered Comet 4 series, which entered service in 1958 and continued operating commercially until 1981. The Comet platform was also adapted for multiple military applications such as VIP transport, medical evacuation, passenger conveyance, and reconnaissance missions. The final Comet 4, repurposed as a research aircraft, completed its last flight in 1997. The most significant evolution of the design was the specialised maritime patrol variant known as the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod, which served with the Royal Air Force until 2011—more than six decades after the original Comet’s maiden flight.

Origins

File:Design Studies for the DH 106 Comet.jpg
Conceptual renderings of the DH.106 Comet, 1944–1947 (artist's rendition)

On 11 March 1943, the Cabinet of the United Kingdom established the Brabazon Committee to assess post-Second World War airliner requirements for the UK.[1] Among its proposals was the creation and manufacture of a pressurized transatlantic mailplane capable of transporting 1 long ton (2,200 lb; 1,000 kg) of cargo at a continuous cruising speed of 400 mph (640 km/h) without stops.[2]

The aviation firm de Havilland expressed interest in fulfilling this need but decided to defy the prevailing belief that jet engines were too inefficient and unreliable for such missions.[N 1] Consequently, Sir Geoffrey de Havilland, a committee member and head of de Havilland, leveraged his influence and expertise to advocate for a purely turbojet-powered aircraft concept.[1]

This proposal was accepted by the committee under the designation "Type IV" (one among five concepts),[N 2] leading to a development and manufacturing contract awarded to de Havilland in 1945 for the Type 106. The design’s sophistication required de Havilland to develop both the airframe and engines internally, as no turbojet manufacturer at that time had an engine design meeting the thrust and fuel efficiency needed to sustain flight at 40,000 ft (12,000 m) altitude, speed, and transatlantic range specified by Type 106.[5] Initial development centered on short- to medium-range mailplanes with limited passenger seating (as few as six), before evolving into a long-range airliner accommodating 24 passengers.[2] Of all Brabazon designs, the DH.106 carried the highest risk due to its novel features and financial scale.[1] Despite this, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) found Type IV’s parameters appealing and initially planned to acquire 25 units; this was later revised to an order for ten aircraft in December 1945.[6]

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In 1946, a design team led by chief designer Ronald Eric Bishop, noted for his work on the Mosquito fighter-bomber,[6] explored several unconventional layouts including canard and tailless configurations;[N 3] all were ultimately dismissed. The Ministry of Supply showed interest in the most radical concept and commissioned two experimental tailless DH 108 aircraft[N 4] intended to validate swept-wing aerodynamics at various speeds.[2][7] Flight testing revealed that the DH 108 was prone to instability and accidents, prompting de Havilland and BOAC to favor more conventional designs with reduced technical hazards.[8] Later modifications allowed DH 108s to assist in evaluating power control systems for the DH.106.[9]

Prior to finishing the DH 108s in September 1946, BOAC’s demands led to revising the DH.106 from a 24-seat layout to one accommodating 36 passengers.[2][N 5] With insufficient time to develop tailless technology further, Bishop selected a more traditional wing design featuring a moderate sweepback of approximately 20 degrees[N 6] combined with unswept tail surfaces. The fuselage was extended for four-abreast seating with an aisle serving up to 36 passengers.[11] The initially specified Halford H.1 Goblin engines were replaced by four more powerful Rolls-Royce Avon turbojets mounted in pairs within the wing roots; however, interim use of Halford H.2 Ghost engines was necessary until Avon certification was achieved. In December 1947, this redesigned aircraft was christened the DH.106 Comet.[N 7] Updated firm orders from BOAC and British South American Airways[N 8] totaled fourteen units with deliveries anticipated starting in 1952.[10]

Testing and prototypes

File:Comet Prototype at Hatfield.jpg
Comet 1 prototype (featuring square windows) at Hatfield Aerodrome in October 1949

As the Comet introduced an entirely new class of passenger aircraft, thorough testing became a critical focus during development.[13] Between 1947 and 1948, de Havilland undertook an extensive research and development program, utilizing multiple stress-testing rigs at Hatfield Aerodrome to evaluate both small parts and larger structural assemblies. Segments of the pressurised fuselage underwent simulation of high-altitude flight conditions inside a large on-site decompression chamber[N 9] until failure occurred.[14] Identifying precise points of failure in the fuselage proved challenging with this approach,[14] prompting de Havilland to adopt structural testing within a water tank that allowed for controlled incremental pressure increases.[9][14][15] The complete forward fuselage section underwent metal fatigue testing by repeatedly cycling pressurisation to 2.75 pounds per square inch (19.0 kPa) overpressure and depressurisation more than 16,000 times, simulating roughly 40,000 hours of airline operation.[16] Window assemblies were also evaluated under pressures reaching 12 psi (83 kPa), exceeding the anticipated maximum by 4.75 psi (32.8 kPa) at the typical cruising altitude of 36,000 ft (11,000 m).[16] One window frame withstood pressures up to 100 psi (690 kPa),[17] which is approximately 1,250 percent above the highest pressure expected during normal service.[16]

The initial DH.106 Comet prototype (bearing Class B markings G-5-1) was finished in 1949 and initially utilized for ground-based evaluations and preliminary flights.[14] Its first flight occurred on 27 July 1949 from Hatfield Aerodrome and lasted for 31 minutes.[18][19] The flight crew included de Havilland’s lead test pilot John "Cats Eyes" Cunningham, renowned for his night-fighter exploits during World War II, alongside co-pilot Harold "Tubby" Waters, electrical engineer John Wilson, hydraulic engineer Frank Reynolds, and flight test observer Tony Fairbrother.[20]

Shortly before being showcased publicly at the 1949 Farnborough Airshow, the prototype was registered as G-ALVG to commence formal flight trials. The second prototype flew for the first time in July 1950 as G-5-2 and was registered as G-ALZK that same month. From April 1951 onwards, it served with the BOAC Comet Unit at Hurn, completing around 500 hours dedicated to crew training and route validation.[21] Additionally, Australian carrier Qantas dispatched technical representatives to monitor prototype performance firsthand to address internal concerns about their potential Comet acquisition.[22] Both early prototypes could be visually identified by their large single-wheel main landing gear, which production models replaced starting with G-ALYP by four-wheeled bogie assemblies.[23]

Overview

File:Museum of Flight DH Comet interior.jpg
Dan-Air Comet 4C cabin at the National Museum of Flight

The Comet was constructed as an all-metal, low-wing cantilever monoplane, equipped with four jet engines. Its cockpit accommodated four crew members: two pilots, a flight engineer, and a navigator.[24] Featuring a sleek, low-drag profile, the aircraft incorporated several innovative design attributes uncommon for its era. These included swept leading edges on the wings, integral fuel tanks within the wings themselves, and main landing gear units with four-wheel bogies designed by de Havilland.[24] The initial Comet models housed two pairs of turbojet engines—specifically Halford H.2 Ghosts (later known as de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1s)—embedded within the wings.[25]

In terms of size, the original Comet was roughly as long as the subsequent Boeing 737-100, though narrower in width. Despite accommodating fewer passengers, it provided a notably more spacious cabin environment. BOAC’s first Comets featured 36 reclining "slumberseats" spaced at 45 in (1,100 mm) intervals, enhancing legroom both ahead and behind each seat;[26] meanwhile, Air France outfitted their Comets with eleven rows of four seats per row.[27] The aircraft offered large panoramic windows and table seating arrangements for rows of passengers, creating an ambiance of comfort and luxury that was rare in transportation at that time.[28] Onboard facilities included a galley capable of serving both hot and cold meals and beverages, a dedicated bar area, as well as separate lavatories for men and women.[29] Safety provisions featured multiple life rafts stored within the wings near the engines and personal life vests positioned beneath each passenger seat.[24]

A hallmark of traveling aboard the Comet was its remarkably quiet and smooth flight experience—often described by BOAC as "vibration-free flying."[30][N 10] For travelers accustomed to piston-driven propeller aircraft, the serene and quiet nature of jet propulsion represented a novel experience.[32]

Avionics and systems

File:De Havilland DH106 Comet 4 G-APDB Cockpit.JPG
The flight deck of a Comet 4

To facilitate crew training and simplify fleet transitions, de Havilland intentionally designed the Comet’s cockpit layout to resemble that of the popular Lockheed Constellation, which was widely used by major operators like BOAC.[14] The flight deck featured full dual controls for both captain and first officer, while a flight engineer managed critical systems such as fuel management, air conditioning, and electrical power.[33] The navigator had a dedicated station positioned opposite the flight engineer’s workspace.[34]

Several avionics innovations were introduced with the Comet in civil aviation. Among these was an irreversible powered flight control system that enhanced pilot handling ease and improved safety by preventing aerodynamic forces from altering control surface positions unintentionally.[35] To protect against overstressing at higher speeds, many control surfaces—including elevators—were fitted with intricate gearing mechanisms.[36]

The aircraft employed four hydraulic systems: two primary circuits, one secondary system, and an emergency backup designed to support essential functions like undercarriage deployment.[37] Additionally, landing gear could be lowered using gravity combined with manual hand-pumping if needed.[38] Hydraulic power was drawn from all four engines to operate systems such as cabin air conditioning and de-icing; these were engineered with redundancy to ensure continued functionality even if only a single engine remained operational.[13] Most hydraulic components were centralized within a single avionics compartment.[39] A pressurized refueling system developed by Flight Refuelling Ltd enabled significantly faster fuel replenishment compared to conventional methods.[40]

File:DeHavillandCometCockpit.jpg
The Comet 4 navigator's station

With the arrival of the Comet 4 series came substantial cockpit modifications emphasizing enhancements to onboard navigation equipment.[41] An EKCO E160 radar unit was installed in the nose cone to provide search capabilities along with ground and cloud mapping functions,[34] accompanied by an integrated radar interface and redesigned instrumentation within the cockpit.[41]

During work on the Sud Aviation Caravelle in 1953, Sud-Est’s design bureau licensed multiple design aspects from de Havilland—building upon earlier collaborations on licensed aircraft such as the DH100 Vampire.[N 11] Notably, the Caravelle adopted the nose shape and cockpit configuration from the Comet 1 model.[43] When Hawker Siddeley adapted the Comet 4 design into the Nimrod in 1969, they completely overhauled the cockpit layout; aside from retaining the control yoke design, it bore little resemblance to earlier versions.[44]

Fuselage

The Comet required the extensive use of various alloys, plastics, and other innovative materials unfamiliar to civil aviation at the time in order to satisfy certification standards for its diverse operating environments and cabin pressurisation.[45] The aircraft's unprecedented combination of high cabin pressure and elevated cruising speeds made the fuselage design a pioneering engineering challenge within commercial aviation.[45] Upon entering service, Comet airframes endured a demanding operational regime, facing extreme temperature variations ranging from scorching desert conditions to the intense cold of kerosene-filled fuel tanks chilled by high-altitude flight.[45]

File:De Havilland Comet RAF Museum Cosford (1).jpg
A Comet 1's fuselage and de Havilland Ghost engine intakes

Constructed from advanced new alloys[N 12], the Comet's thin metal skin combined riveting with chemical bonding techniques, which reduced weight and mitigated the propagation of fatigue cracks originating at rivet points.[46] This bonding was achieved using the innovative adhesive Redux, extensively applied throughout the wings and fuselage, which also streamlined the manufacturing process.[47]

Following the discovery that certain fuselage alloys were susceptible to metal fatigue, a rigorous inspection regime was implemented. This included not only detailed visual examinations of the external skin but also mandatory structural sampling performed by both civilian and military operators of the Comet. To assess areas invisible to direct observation, radiographic inspection techniques were adopted widely in aviation, enabling detection of minute cracks and defects otherwise undetectable.[48]

From an operational standpoint, the cargo hold design presented significant challenges for ground personnel, particularly baggage handlers. The cargo doors were positioned beneath the aircraft, requiring each piece of luggage or freight to be lifted vertically from the top of baggage trucks before sliding along the hold floor for storage. Similarly, unloading at destination airports involved a slow and labor-intensive retrieval process.[49][50]

Propulsion

The Comet's thrust was generated by two sets of turbojet engines embedded within the wings near the fuselage. Chief designer Bishop opted for this internal engine placement to minimize drag typically caused by podded engines and to allow for a smaller fin and rudder, as the risk associated with asymmetric thrust was significantly lowered.[51] To reduce noise output, the engines were equipped with baffles, and comprehensive soundproofing measures were applied to enhance passenger comfort.[52]

File:De Havilland Comet pic 1 REJS.jpg
The Comet 4’s increased size Rolls-Royce Avon engine intakes

Embedding the engines inside the wings helped decrease the likelihood of foreign object damage, a threat that could severely impair jet engines. Additionally, the low positioning of the engines combined with well-placed access panels simplified maintenance activities.[53] However, this buried-engine design added to the aircraft’s structural weight and complexity. Protective armor had to be installed around the engine compartments to contain debris in case of severe engine failures, and integrating engines within the wings necessitated a more intricate wing framework.[54]

The initial Comet 1 models were powered by 5,050 lbf (22.5 kN) de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1 turbojets.[25][55] Initially, two hydrogen peroxide-powered de Havilland Sprite booster rockets were planned to assist takeoff performance at high-altitude and hot climate airports such as Khartoum and Nairobi.[27][56] These boosters underwent testing on thirty flights; however, the Ghost engines alone provided sufficient thrust, leading some airlines to deem rocket assistance impractical.[9] Despite this, fittings for Sprites remained on production aircraft.[57] Later Comet 1 models were upgraded with more powerful 5,700 lbf (25 kN) Ghost DGT3 series engines.[58]

Starting with the Comet 2 variant, the Ghost turbojets were replaced by more advanced and potent 7,000 lbf (31 kN) Rolls-Royce Avon AJ.65 engines. To maximize efficiency with these new powerplants, air intake openings were enlarged to boost airflow.[59] The Comet 3 incorporated further improved Avon engines,[59] and the Avon-equipped Comet 4 earned acclaim for its superior takeoff capabilities at high-altitude airports such as Mexico City, where it was operated by Mexicana de Aviacion, a prominent scheduled airline.[60][61]

Introduction

The first production model, bearing the registration G-ALYP ("Yoke Peter"), took to the skies on 9 January 1951 and was later loaned to BOAC's Comet Unit for developmental test flights. On 22 January 1952, the fifth aircraft produced, G-ALYS, became the first Comet to be granted a Certificate of Airworthiness, achieving this milestone six months earlier than anticipated. As part of BOAC's route-proving program, on 2 May 1952, G-ALYP embarked on the inaugural jetliner flight carrying fare-paying passengers, initiating scheduled service between London and Johannesburg. The final Comet from BOAC’s initial batch, registered as G-ALYZ, started operations in September 1952, transporting cargo on South American routes while adhering to passenger timetable simulations.

File:BOAC Comet 1952 Entebbe.jpg
A BOAC Comet 1 at Entebbe Airport, Uganda in 1952; this particular aircraft was later involved in the BOAC Flight 115 accident the same year.

On 4 August 1952, Prince Philip returned from the Helsinki Olympics aboard G-ALYS. A special flight on 30 June 1953 featured Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, and Princess Margaret as guests, hosted by Sir Geoffrey and Lady de Havilland. The Comet's cruising speeds were roughly double those of advanced piston-engine aircraft like the Douglas DC-6 (approximately 490 mph compared to 315 mph), with a superior climb rate further reducing travel times. By August 1953, BOAC had scheduled London-to-Tokyo flights with nine stops in just 36 hours using the Comet, compared to nearly 87 hours on its Argonaut piston airliner; Pan Am’s DC-6B flights were timed at approximately 46 hours and 45 minutes. Additionally, London-to-Johannesburg journeys were set for about 21 hours and 20 minutes.

In its debut year, the Comet transported around 30,000 passengers. The aircraft was commercially viable with load factors as low as 43 percent, signaling promising profitability. Its Ghost engines enabled operation above adverse weather conditions faced by competitors flying piston aircraft. These engines offered smooth operation with reduced noise levels compared to piston counterparts, required less maintenance—resulting in lower parts and labor costs as well as quicker turnaround—and demonstrated efficient fuel consumption at altitudes above 30,000 feet. During summer 1953, eight BOAC Comets departed London weekly: three bound for Johannesburg, two for Tokyo, two for Singapore, and one to Colombo.

By 1953, de Havilland appeared poised for success with the Comet. Popular Mechanics noted that Britain led other nations by three to five years in jetliner development. Beyond BOAC’s acquisitions, French carriers Union Aéromaritime de Transport and Air France each procured three Comet 1As—an enhanced version with increased fuel capacity—for routes serving West Africa and the Middle East. Concurrently, development was underway for a slightly extended Comet model equipped with more powerful engines known as the Comet 2. Orders for this variant came from Air India, British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Japan Air Lines, Linea Aeropostal Venezolana, and Panair do Brasil. In addition, American airlines including Capital Airlines, National Airlines, and Pan Am placed orders for the forthcoming Comet 3—a larger aircraft designed for longer transatlantic flights. Although Qantas showed interest in the Comet 1, it determined that an aircraft with greater range and enhanced takeoff capabilities was necessary for its London-to-Canberra service requirements.

Early aircraft losses

The first total loss of a Comet occurred on 26 October 1952, when BOAC Flight 115 departing from Rome's Ciampino Airport was unable to lift off and veered into uneven terrain at the runway's end. Although two passengers suffered minor injuries, the plane, registered G-ALYZ, was declared a complete loss. Later, on 3 March 1953, a newly delivered Canadian Pacific Airlines Comet 1A, bearing the registration CF-CUN and named Empress of Hawaii, failed to become airborne during a nighttime takeoff at Karachi, Pakistan. The aircraft crashed into a dry drainage ditch and struck an embankment, resulting in the deaths of all five crew members and six passengers aboard. This incident marked the first fatal accident involving a jet-powered airliner. Following this tragedy, Canadian Pacific withdrew its outstanding order for an additional Comet 1A and never introduced the model into commercial operations.

File:De Havilland Comet 1 BOAC Heathrow G-ALYX 1953.jpg
BOAC Comet 1 G-ALYX (Yoke X-Ray) at London Heathrow Airport in 1953 before a scheduled flight

Initially, both of these early crashes were blamed on pilot error, with overrotation causing a loss of lift from the aircraft's wing leading edges. Subsequent analysis revealed that the Comet's wing design experienced lift degradation at elevated angles of attack, while its engine intakes also suffered from inadequate pressure recovery under similar conditions. Consequently, de Havilland modified the wings by adding a distinct "droop" to the leading edges and installed wing fences to mitigate spanwise airflow issues. The takeoff accidents inspired Arthur David Beaty, a former BOAC captain, to write the novel Cone of Silence (1959), which fictionalized the investigation surrounding these events. The book was adapted into a film in 1960, and Beaty further discussed the Comet's takeoff incidents in his non-fiction work Strange Encounters: Mysteries of the Air (1984).

The second fatal crash involving a Comet took place on 2 May 1953 when BOAC Flight 783, operated by a Comet 1 registered G-ALYV, encountered a severe thunderstorm shortly after departing from Calcutta-Dum Dum airport in India. Six minutes after takeoff, the aircraft crashed, killing all 43 individuals onboard. Eyewitnesses reported seeing the wingless plane engulfed in flames as it descended into the village of Jagalgori, prompting investigators to consider structural failure as a probable cause.

Investigation by Indian Authorities

Following the destruction of G-ALYV, the Government of India initiated a formal court of inquiry[62] to determine the factors behind the incident.[N 13] The inquiry was supported by Professor Natesan Srinivasan, who served as the principal technical specialist. Substantial parts of the aircraft were recovered and reassembled at Farnborough,[63] revealing that structural failure originated with a fracture in the left elevator spar within the horizontal stabilizer. The investigation concluded that during takeoff, the aircraft experienced intense negative g-forces; these were caused by severe turbulence linked to adverse weather conditions, which induced downward loading forces that ultimately resulted in wing detachment. Analysis of cockpit controls indicated that the pilot might have unintentionally subjected the aircraft to excessive stress while recovering from a steep dive, due to overuse of the fully powered flight control system. Metal fatigue was ruled out as a contributing factor.[64]

The inquiry led to several key recommendations focused on imposing stricter speed restrictions during turbulent conditions. Additionally, two major design enhancements were implemented: all Comet aircraft were fitted with weather radar, and an innovative "Q feel" system was introduced to ensure that control column forces—commonly referred to as stick forces—would correspond proportionally to control loads. This artificial feel mechanism was pioneering in aviation technology.[63] Earlier models, the Comet 1 and 1A, had faced criticism for lacking sufficient "feel" in their control systems,[65] which investigators believed may have contributed to pilot-induced over-stressing;[66] however, Comet chief test pilot John Cunningham maintained that the jetliner exhibited smooth handling and responsiveness comparable to other de Havilland aircraft.[67][N 14]

Fatal Comet Incidents of 1954

Main articles: BOAC Flight 781 and South African Airways Flight 201

Just over a year later, a tragic event occurred involving another Comet departing from Rome's Ciampino airport—the same location where the first Comet hull loss had taken place. On 10 January 1954, twenty minutes after liftoff from Ciampino, the initial production Comet, G-ALYP, disintegrated mid-flight while operating BOAC Flight 781, crashing into the Mediterranean Sea near the Italian island of Elba. All 35 passengers and crew perished.[68][69] Due to a lack of eyewitness accounts and only incomplete radio communication prior to the accident, no clear cause could be established immediately. In response, de Havilland engineers proposed sixty modifications targeting potential design weaknesses, while the Abell Committee convened to investigate possible reasons behind the catastrophe.[70][N 15] Concurrently, BOAC took voluntary action by grounding its entire Comet fleet until further investigation into the accident's cause could be completed.[72]

Abell Committee Court of Inquiry

Public speculation initially focused on possible sabotage;[73] other theories included clear-air turbulence and a vapour explosion within an empty fuel tank. The Abell Committee examined six potential aerodynamic and mechanical factors: wing flutter (previously responsible for the loss of DH 108 prototypes), structural failure caused by excessive loads or metal fatigue in the wing framework, malfunction of the powered flight control systems, failure of window panels resulting in explosive decompression, as well as fire or other engine-related issues. The committee ultimately determined that fire was the most probable cause, prompting modifications to the aircraft aimed at safeguarding engines and wings from damage that could trigger further fires.[74]

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During the inquiry, recovery efforts were undertaken by the Royal Navy.[75] The initial wreckage was located on 12 February 1954,[76] with search operations continuing through September 1954. By that time, investigators had recovered approximately 70% by weight of the main airframe, 80% of the powerplant components, and half of the aircraft’s systems and equipment.[77][78] Reconstruction from forensic analysis was underway when the Abell Committee published its conclusions. No definitive defect was identified in the aircraft,[N 16] leading the British government to decide against initiating another public inquiry.[72] The high-profile nature of the Comet initiative—especially for Britain's aerospace sector—and BOAC’s financial losses due to grounding exerted pressure on concluding the investigation without further probes.[72] Commercial Comet flights recommenced on 23 March 1954.[79]

On 8 April 1954, Comet G-ALYY ("Yoke Yoke"), operating under charter for South African Airways, crashed into the Mediterranean near Naples during a Rome-to-Cairo segment of its longer journey (South African Airways Flight 201) from London to Johannesburg. All twenty-one passengers and crew perished.[68] This incident led to an immediate re-grounding of all Comet aircraft and prompted formation of a comprehensive investigation board led by the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE).[68] Prime Minister Winston Churchill assigned Royal Navy units to assist in locating and recovering wreckage to facilitate determination of crash causes.[80] Consequently, the Comet’s Certificate of Airworthiness was withdrawn; production of Comet 1 models at Hatfield was halted; and BOAC’s fleet was permanently grounded, subsequently preserved in storage through cocooning.[73]

Cohen Committee Court of Inquiry

The Cohen Committee was formed on 19 October 1954 to investigate the underlying reasons behind the Comet aircraft crashes. Chaired by Lord Cohen, the committee assigned a detailed examination to a team led by Sir Arnold Hall, then Director of the RAE at Farnborough. Hall’s group prioritized fatigue as the probable cause of both incidents and commenced extensive studies into the stress experienced by the aircraft’s skin. Following the retrieval of significant sections of G-ALYP from the Elba crash site and BOAC’s provision of an identical airframe, G-ALYU, for testing, a comprehensive "water torture" experiment was ultimately conducted to yield definitive conclusions. This test involved placing the full fuselage inside a specially constructed water tank at Farnborough designed to accommodate its entire length.

During these water tank trials, engineers subjected G-ALYU to numerous cycles of pressurisation and over-pressurisation. On 24 June 1954, after completing 3,057 flight cycles (comprising 1,221 actual and 1,836 simulated), G-ALYU ruptured. Hall, Geoffrey de Havilland, and Bishop were promptly summoned to inspect the site where draining the tank revealed a rupture initiating at a bolt hole located ahead of the forward left escape hatch cut-out. The failure propagated longitudinally along a fuselage stringer at the widest section of the fuselage, extending through an escape hatch cut-out. It was determined that the skin thickness was inadequate to distribute loads evenly, causing excessive stress on fuselage frames near cut-outs. The frames lacked sufficient robustness to halt crack progression. Although this failure occurred after three times the flight cycles that G-ALYP had completed before its accident, it still happened sooner than anticipated. A subsequent test replicated these results. Consequently, structural failures in Comet 1 aircraft were predicted to occur anywhere between 1,000 and 9,000 pressurisation cycles. Prior to the Elba crash, G-ALYP had completed 1,290 pressurised flights while G-ALYY had flown 900 before its accident. Dr P. B. Walker, Head of Structures at RAE, expressed no surprise given that fatigue experience suggested a possible ninefold difference between experimental findings and real-world outcomes.

At Farnborough, RAE engineers also reconstructed approximately two-thirds of G-ALYP and identified fatigue crack growth originating from a countersunk rivet hole near the starboard aft corner of the rear Automatic Direction Finder window. This crack led to catastrophic in-flight breakup at high altitude. At the port forward corner of the same window, investigators found a minor crack caused by manufacturing damage which had been repaired during assembly; however, no signs of metal fatigue were evident there. Once initiated, the crack caused skin failure beginning at the ADF cut-out and propagated downward and rearward, triggering explosive decompression.

Hall accepted RAE’s conclusion that design and manufacturing defects were responsible for G-ALYU’s structural failure after approximately 3,060 pressurisation cycles. He stated: "Considering known properties of aluminium alloy D.T.D. 546 or 746 used in the skin and following advice from my assessors, I concur with RAE’s conclusion that fatigue after this relatively small number of pressurisation cycles adequately explains the cabin skin failure of Yoke Uncle."

Preliminary structural observations

The lightweight construction of the Comet 1, intended to accommodate the relatively modest thrust of the de Havilland Ghost engines, was highlighted by de Havilland test pilot John Wilson during a 1949 Farnborough flypast in the prototype. Accompanying him was Chris Beaumont, Chief Test Pilot at the de Havilland Engine Company, who stood at the cockpit entrance behind the Flight Engineer. Wilson recalled, "Whenever we executed turns at 2½ to 3 Gs, Chris noticed the floor beneath him bulging upward, accompanied by a loud bang emanating from the aircraft’s nose due to the skin flexing. This noise became a reliable indicator that we had reached 340 knots without needing to consult the airspeed indicator. In hindsight, these signals revealed just how fragile the structure truly was."

Official reaction

In addressing these findings, de Havilland declared: "With growing recognition of high-altitude fatigue risks in pressurized cabins, we will implement appropriate countermeasures. Our plan includes utilizing thicker materials in pressure cabin sections and reinforcing and redesigning windows and cut-outs. This approach aims to reduce overall stress levels so that localized stress concentrations—whether around rivets, bolt holes, or from cracks introduced during manufacturing or later—do not pose a hazard."

The Cohen inquiry concluded on 24 November 1954, determining that "the fundamental design of the Comet was sound" and made no remarks or suggestions concerning window geometry. Nevertheless, de Havilland initiated a retrofit initiative to reinforce both fuselage and wing structures by applying thicker skin panels and substituting rectangular windows and panels with rounded shapes. It is important to note this modification was unrelated to the mistaken 'square' window allegation; evidence lies in the fact that fuselage escape hatch cut-outs—responsible for failure in test aircraft G-ALYU—remained rectangular.

Subsequent to the Comet investigation, aircraft design standards evolved to incorporate "fail-safe" or safe-life principles, although serious fatigue-related accidents continued to occur later on, including incidents like Aloha Airlines Flight 243 on April 28, 1988.

Service Restart

Following the identification of structural defects in the initial Comet models, all remaining aircraft were removed from operational use. Concurrently, de Havilland initiated an extensive redesign to produce a larger, more robust version. Airlines cancelled all pending orders for the Comet 2. Production Comet 2 aircraft underwent modifications involving the installation of thicker skin panels to better manage stress distribution and reduce fatigue issues; most of these served with the RAF as the Comet C2. Plans to develop a Comet 2 variant equipped with more powerful Avon engines were postponed. The Comet 3 prototype took to the skies for the first time in July 1954 and was subjected to testing without pressurization while awaiting the findings of the Cohen inquiry. Commercial flights featuring the Comet would not recommence until 1958.

Testing and route validation flights with the Comet 3 expedited the certification process for what would become the most commercially successful model: the Comet 4. Customers initially committed to the Comet 3 subsequently withdrew their orders in favor of the Comet 4, which was an enhanced version of its predecessor featuring increased fuel capacity. In March 1955, BOAC placed an order for 19 Comet 4s, followed by Capital Airlines' order for 14 units in July 1956. Capital’s request included ten Comet 4A models, designed for short-haul routes with an extended fuselage and shortened wingspan, lacking the outboard wing fuel tanks found on standard Comet 4s. However, financial difficulties and Capital’s acquisition by United Airlines meant that they never operated these aircraft.

The inaugural flight of the Comet 4 occurred on 27 April 1958, receiving its Certificate of Airworthiness on 24 September that year; BOAC took delivery of the first unit the following day. The initial cost of a new Comet 4 was approximately £1.14 million (equivalent to £Template:Inflation million in Template:Inflation/year). This model enabled BOAC to launch the world’s first scheduled jet-powered transatlantic service on 4 October 1958 between London and New York, although westbound flights still required a refueling stop at Gander International Airport, Newfoundland. While BOAC earned recognition as the pioneer of transatlantic jet travel, by month’s end Pan American World Airways had commenced Boeing 707 service on its New York-Paris route, also stopping at Gander in both directions, and began operating Douglas DC-8 jets on transatlantic routes in 1960. Compared to the Comet, these American jets offered greater size, speed, range, and cost efficiency. After reviewing route demands for the Comet, BOAC reluctantly sought a replacement and in 1956 entered into a purchase agreement with Boeing for their 707 model.

Other airlines also acquired the Comet 4: Aerolíneas Argentinas received six units between 1959 and 1960, deploying them on routes connecting Buenos Aires with Santiago, New York, and Europe; meanwhile, East African Airways took delivery of three aircraft from 1960 to 1962 to operate services linking the United Kingdom with Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The Comet 4A originally ordered by Capital Airlines was instead produced as the Comet 4B for BEA; this variant featured an additional fuselage stretch of 38 in (970 mm) and seating capacity for 99 passengers. The first Comet 4B flew on 27 June 1959, with BEA initiating flights from Tel Aviv to London-Heathrow on 1 April 1960. Olympic Airways was another operator that ordered this type. The final variant in this series, the Comet 4C, made its maiden flight on 31 October 1959 and entered service with Mexicana in 1960. The Comet 4C combined the extended fuselage of the Comet 4B with longer wings and additional fuel tanks from the original Comet 4 design, resulting in an increased range compared to the 4B model. This variant was purchased by Kuwait Airways, Middle East Airlines, Misrair (later Egyptair), and Sudan Airways, becoming the most widely used version of the Comet series.

Later service

File:Comet Canopus.jpg
Comet 4C Canopus exhibited at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome in Leicestershire, England

Starting in 1959, BOAC began reallocating its Comet fleet from transatlantic routes[N 17] and transferred the aircraft to affiliated carriers, resulting in a relatively short period during which the Comet 4 was considered a leading airliner. The emergence of the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, along with the introduction of the Vickers VC10, enabled competitors to take over the high-speed, long-distance passenger service role initially established by the Comet.[81] In 1960, amid a government-supported consolidation within the British aerospace sector, de Havilland was acquired by Hawker Siddeley and became a fully owned division of the company.[82]

During the 1960s, demand for the Comet diminished, with a total of 76 Comet 4 aircraft delivered between 1958 and 1964. BOAC withdrew its Comet 4s from commercial service in November 1965; however, other airlines continued operating the type for passenger flights until 1981. Dan-Air notably contributed to the later operational history of the Comet fleet and at one point owned all remaining 49 airworthy civil Comets.[83] On March 14, 1997, a Comet 4C bearing the United Kingdom military serial XS235 and named Canopus,[84] which had been acquired by the British Ministry of Technology for use in radio, radar, and avionics testing, completed the final recorded flight of a production Comet.[85]

Legacy

File:Dan-Air Comet.jpg
Dan-Air Comet 4C, G-BDIW displayed at Flugausstellung Hermeskeil in Germany

The Comet is recognized both as a pioneering advancement and a profound misfortune; its legacy includes significant contributions to aircraft design and accident investigation methodologies. The thorough investigations following the accidents involving the Comet 1 rank among the most comprehensive and groundbreaking ever conducted, setting new standards for accident inquiry; many of the salvage techniques used in deep-sea recovery and reconstruction have continued to be applied within aviation.[86] Although subjected to what was then considered rigorous testing compared to contemporaries, critical aspects such as pressurisation effects and dynamic stresses were not fully comprehended during development, nor was metal fatigue understood. While these insights informed future designs from inception, modifications could only be retrofitted onto existing Comets.[87]

John Cunningham, de Havilland's chief test pilot who flew the prototype's maiden flight, reported that representatives from American manufacturers like Boeing and Douglas privately acknowledged that if de Havilland had not encountered pressurisation challenges first with the Comet, they likely would have faced similar issues later.[88] Cunningham compared the Comet's impact on aviation to that of the later Concorde, expressing his belief that it would transform air travel—and indeed it did.[67] Aviation historian Bill Withuhn observed that the Comet pushed "'the state-of-the-art' beyond its limits."[53]

Template:Quote box

Aerospace engineering companies swiftly reacted to both the commercial advantages and technical shortcomings revealed by the Comet; other manufacturers assimilated these valuable lessons derived from de Havilland’s experience.[89][90] The concept of embedding engines within wings was adopted by some early jetliners such as the Tupolev Tu-104,[91] but subsequent designs like Boeing’s 707 and Douglas’s DC-8 featured podded engines mounted on pylons beneath their wings.[92] Boeing explained that podded engine arrangements were preferred because buried engines posed a greater threat of catastrophic wing failure if an engine fire occurred.[93] In response to tragedies involving the Comet, manufacturers enhanced pressurisation testing procedures—often including rapid decompression simulations—and increased fuselage skin thickness in later aircraft models compared to that used on the Comet.[94]

Comet 1

File:Aeromaritime de Havilland Comet 1 Groves.jpg
Union Aéromaritime de Transport Comet 1A at Le Bourget Airport in 1952

The Comet 1 represented the initial production variant, with a total of twelve aircraft built for both operational and testing purposes. It closely followed the design elements of the two prototype models, with the primary modification being the replacement of single main wheels by four-wheel bogie units on the main undercarriage. This version was equipped with four Ghost 50 Mk 1 engines, which were subsequently upgraded to the more powerful Ghost DGT3 series. The wingspan measured 115 ft (35 m), and the overall length was 93 ft (28 m); it had a maximum takeoff weight exceeding 105,000 lb (48,000 kg) and could accommodate over 40 passengers.

  • The Comet 1A was an enhanced version featuring increased allowable weight, expanded fuel tanks, and water-methanol injection; ten units were manufactured. After the accidents in 1954, all Comet 1 and 1A aircraft were recalled to Hatfield, encased in protective coverings, and preserved for further testing. Most were either heavily damaged during stress evaluations or dismantled completely.
  • The Comet 1X designation applied to two Royal Canadian Air Force Comet 1As that were reconstructed with thicker fuselage skins to meet Comet 2 standards.
  • Four Comet 1As were upgraded to the Comet 1XB standard, which included a strengthened fuselage and oval-shaped windows. Both the 1X and 1XB variants had limitations on the number of pressurisation cycles they could endure.
  • The DH 111 Comet Bomber, developed under Air Ministry specification B35/46, was a nuclear-capable variant submitted on 27 May 1948. Initially proposed as the "PR Comet" for high-altitude photographic reconnaissance, it featured a slimmer fuselage, a bulbous nose housing H2S Mk IX radar, and a pressurised cockpit for four crew members beneath a large bubble canopy. To achieve a range of approximately 3,350 miles (5,390 km), fuel tanks with a capacity of 2,400 imperial gallons (11,000 L) were installed. However, due to significant concerns from the Royal Aircraft Establishment regarding weapons storage and redundancy given the RAF's planned V bomber fleet, de Havilland discontinued this project on 22 October 1948.

Comet 2

File:De Havilland Comet CMk.2.jpg
Comet C2, XK671 Aquila at RAF Waterbeach, featuring redesigned round windows

The Comet 2 incorporated a slightly enlarged wing, increased fuel capacity, and more powerful Rolls-Royce Avon engines, collectively enhancing its range and overall performance. Its fuselage was extended by 3 ft 1 in (0.94 m) compared to that of the Comet 1. Design modifications aimed to optimize this model for transatlantic flights. In response to earlier accidents involving the Comet 1, these aircraft were reinforced with thicker skin panels and fitted with rounded windows. The Avon-powered variants featured larger air intakes and outward-curving exhaust nozzles designed to reduce heat impact on the rear fuselage. BOAC ordered twelve Comet 2s configured with 44 seats for South Atlantic service. The first production unit (G-AMXA) took flight on 27 August 1953. Although these aircraft demonstrated satisfactory performance on South Atlantic routes, their range remained insufficient for North Atlantic crossings. The majority of Comet 2s—except for four—were assigned to the Royal Air Force starting in 1955. Interior modifications allowed adaptation for various roles including VIP transport with customized seating and medical equipment provisions such as iron lungs. Some airframes were later equipped with specialized signals intelligence and electronic surveillance systems.

  • The Comet 2X was a single Comet Mk 1 airframe fitted with four Rolls-Royce Avon 502 turbojets, serving as a developmental platform for the Comet 2.
  • Two Comet 2E airliners were equipped with Avon 504 engines inboard and Avon 524 engines outboard; these aircraft conducted BOAC proving flights between 1957 and 1958.
  • The Comet T2 variant comprised ten RAF crew trainers converted from Comet 2s; the first (XK669) flew on 9 December 1955.
  • Eight aircraft initially intended for civilian use were completed as Comet C2 models for RAF service with No. 216 Squadron.
  • Three Comet 2R aircraft underwent modifications for radar and electronic systems development duties within the RAF’s No. 90 Group (later Signals Command). Serving with No. 192 and No. 51 Squadrons from 1958 onward, these ELINT-configured planes monitored Warsaw Pact communications until replaced by Nimrod R1 aircraft in 1974—the final Comet derivative retired from RAF service.

Comet 3

File:DH106 Comet 3 G-ANLO FAR 1954.jpg
Comet 3 G-ANLO displaying BOAC livery at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1954

The Comet 3 made its maiden flight on 19 July 1954 and was essentially a lengthened version of the Comet 2 by 15 ft 5 in (4.70 m), equipped with Avon M502 engines producing 10,000 lbf (44 kN) of thrust.[95] This model incorporated wing pinion tanks, enhancing both its capacity and operational range.[96] However, it remained a transitional development as it lacked the fuselage reinforcement found in subsequent series and could not be fully pressurized.[97] Only two Comet 3 aircraft were initiated; G-ANLO was the sole airworthy example and was showcased at the Farnborough SBAC Show in September 1954. The second airframe did not reach production standards and served mainly for ground-based structural and technological testing during the development phase of the similarly sized Comet 4. An additional nine Comet 3 airframes were left incomplete, with their assembly halted at Hatfield.[98]

Under BOAC colours, G-ANLO was piloted by John Cunningham on an extensive round-the-world promotional flight in December 1955.[96] Later, it was converted into a flying test platform designated the Comet 3B, fitted with Avon RA29 engines and shorter-span wings replacing the original long-span design. It was exhibited in British European Airways (BEA) livery at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1958.[97] In 1961, G–ANLO was assigned to the Blind Landing Experimental Unit (BLEU) at RAE Bedford, where it participated in trials for automatic landing systems. After its retirement in 1973, the airframe was utilized for foam-arrester testing before its fuselage was preserved at BAE Woodford to serve as a mock-up for the Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft.[99]

Comet 4

File:BEA De Havilland DH-106 Comet 4B Tempelhof Manteufel.jpg
British European Airways Comet 4B at Berlin Tempelhof Airport in October 1968

The Comet 4 represented a further advancement over the stretched Comet 3, featuring an even larger fuel capacity. Compared to the original Comet 1, it had grown by 18 ft 6 in (5.64 m) in length and typically accommodated between 74 and 81 passengers, whereas the Comet 1 seated only between 36 and 44; a special charter configuration of the later 4C variant could hold up to 119 passengers.[11] Recognized as the definitive model of the series, the Comet 4 offered extended range, increased cruising speed, and a higher maximum takeoff weight. These enhancements were largely enabled by Avon engines delivering twice the thrust of the earlier Ghost engines used on the Comet 1.[100] BOAC began receiving deliveries on 30 September 1958 with two aircraft configured for 48 seats each, which inaugurated their first scheduled transatlantic routes.

  • Comet 4B: Initially developed as the Comet 4A for Capital Airlines, this version featured increased capacity via a fuselage extended by approximately two metres combined with a reduced wingspan; a total of eighteen units were built.
  • Comet 4C: This variant combined the longer fuselage from the Comet 4B with the wings of the Comet 4; twenty-eight were produced.

The final two Comet 4C fuselages were repurposed as prototypes for the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft.[101] One particular Comet 4C (registration SA-R-7) was ordered by Saudi Arabian Airlines and eventually allocated to the Saudi Royal Flight for exclusive use by King Saud bin Abdul Aziz. Extensively customized at the manufacturing facility, this aircraft included a VIP front cabin, sleeping quarters, specially appointed restrooms with gold fittings, and sported a distinctive green, gold, and white color scheme with polished wings and lower fuselage designed by aviation artist John Stroud. Upon its inaugural flight, this bespoke Comet 4C earned recognition as "the world's first executive jet."[102]

Comet 5 Proposal

The Comet 5 was introduced as a potential advancement over earlier versions, featuring a broader fuselage designed to accommodate five seats abreast, a wing with increased sweepback, and pod-mounted Rolls-Royce Conway engines. However, lacking endorsement from the Ministry of Transport, the concept remained theoretical and never progressed to production.[103][N 18]

Hawker Siddeley Nimrod

Main article: Hawker Siddeley Nimrod

The final two Comet 4C airframes manufactured (XV148 & XV147) were converted into prototypes to satisfy a British requirement for a maritime patrol aircraft intended for the Royal Air Force. Initially referred to as the "Maritime Comet," this design was assigned the designation Type HS 801.[101] This model evolved into the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod, with production taking place at the Hawker Siddeley facility located at Woodford Aerodrome. The Nimrod entered operational service in 1969, with five different variants produced.[104] The Nimrod fleet was ultimately retired in June 2011.[105]

Operators

Main article: List of de Havilland Comet operators
File:Gatwick1976-mrh.jpg
Dan-Air Comet 4s alongside BAC One-Eleven aircraft at London Gatwick Airport in 1976

Early Comet 1 and Comet 1A models were initially operated by BOAC, Union Aéromaritime de Transport, and Air France. Following the withdrawal of all early Comets for accident investigations, orders from British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Japan Air Lines, Linea Aeropostal Venezolana, National Airlines, Pan American World Airways, and Panair do Brasil were cancelled.[106][107] Upon introduction of the redesigned Comet 4, customers such as BOAC, Aerolíneas Argentinas, and East African Airways began operations,[108] while the Comet 4B variant was utilized by BEA and Olympic Airways,[108] and the Comet 4C was flown by Kuwait Airways, Mexicana, Middle East Airlines, Misrair Airlines, and Sudan Airways.[107]

Several other operators acquired Comets through leasing or second-hand purchases. BOAC leased its Comet 4 fleet to carriers including Air Ceylon, Air India, AREA Ecuador, Central African Airways[109], and Qantas;[106][110] after 1965 these aircraft were sold to AREA Ecuador, Dan-Air, Mexicana, Malaysian Airways, and the Ministry of Defence.[107][108][111] BEA’s Comet 4Bs were chartered by Cyprus Airways, Malta Airways, and Transportes Aéreos Portugueses.[112] In 1970 Channel Airways acquired five Comet 4Bs from BEA for inclusive tour charter operations.[113] Dan-Air purchased all remaining airworthy Comet 4s during the late 1960s through the 1970s; while some were used for spare parts recovery, most served on the airline’s inclusive-tour charter flights. In total, Dan-Air obtained forty-eight Comets across all variants.[114]

Within military service contexts, the Royal Air Force was the primary operator in the United Kingdom with squadrons including 51 Squadron (1958–1975; operating Comet C2 and C2R), 192 Squadron (1957–1958; Comet C2 and C2R), 216 Squadron (1956–1975; flying Comet C2 and C4), along with usage by the Royal Aircraft Establishment.[115][116] The Royal Canadian Air Force also operated Comet aircraft—specifically Comet 1As later upgraded to the 1XB standard—through its 412 Squadron between 1953 and 1963.[117]

Accidents and incidents

The Comet aircraft was linked to 25 accidents resulting in hull loss, among which 13 crashes were fatal, causing a total of 492 deaths. The first deadly incident involving the type was attributed to pilot error during takeoff at Karachi's Jinnah International Airport on 3 March 1953, involving a Canadian Pacific Airlines Comet 1A. Structural failures were responsible for three fatal crashes of the Comet 1 model: British Overseas Airways Corporation flight 783 on 2 May 1953, BOAC flight 781 on 10 January 1954, and South African Airways flight 201 on 8 April 1954. These tragedies prompted the complete grounding of the Comet fleet. Following design improvements, commercial operations with the Comet resumed on 4 October 1958, utilizing the Comet 4 variant.

File:BOAC Comet Manteufel.jpg
Comet 4 G-APDN crashed in July 1970 within Spain's Montseny mountain range during a Dan-Air flight.

Five fatal accidents involving the Comet 4 were attributed to pilot error leading to controlled flight into terrain. These included crashes near Asunción, Paraguay (Aerolíneas Argentinas, 27 August 1959), Campinas near São Paulo, Brazil (Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 322, 23 November 1961), Khao Yai mountains in Thailand (United Arab Airlines Flight 869, 19 July 1962), the Italian Alps (Saudi Arabian Government flight, 20 March 1963), and Tripoli, Libya (United Arab Airlines Flight 844, 2 January 1971). The Dan-Air Comet crash in Spain’s Montseny range on 3 July 1970 was caused by navigational mistakes made by both air traffic controllers and pilots. Additional fatal incidents involved a British European Airways crash in Ankara due to instrument malfunction on 21 December 1961; a United Arab Airlines Flight 869 accident amid adverse weather conditions near Bombay on 28 July 1963; and the terrorist bombing of Cyprus Airways Flight 284 off the coast of Turkey on 12 October 1967.

There were nine Comets—comprising Comet 1s operated by BOAC and Union Aeromaritime de Transport as well as Comet 4s flown by Aerolíneas Argentinas, Dan-Air, Malaysian Airlines, and United Arab Airlines—that suffered irreparable damage during takeoff or landing mishaps but with all occupants surviving. Additionally, a hangar fire on 13 September 1957 destroyed a No. 192 Squadron RAF Comet 2R beyond repair. On 28 December 1968, three Middle East Airlines Comet 4Cs were demolished by Israeli forces in Beirut, Lebanon.

Aircraft on display

File:De Havilland Comet RAF Museum Cosford.jpg
Comet 1 G-APAS exhibited at the Royal Air Force Museum Midlands in Shropshire
File:De Havilland Comet - Imperial War Museum Duxford.jpg
Comet 4 G-APDB positioned outdoors at the Imperial War Museum Duxford in Cambridgeshire; this plane was subsequently repainted in BOAC colours and relocated inside the museum's AirSpace gallery.

Following their withdrawal from service, three early-model Comet aircraft have been preserved within museum collections. The sole surviving complete Comet 1, a Comet 1XB registered as G-APAS and the final Comet 1 produced, is showcased at the Royal Air Force Museum Midlands.[118] Although it bears BOAC markings, this airframe never operated for the airline, having initially been delivered to Air France and later transferred to the Ministry of Supply after conversion to 1XB specification;[118] it also served with the RAF under the serial XM823.

The only remaining Comet fuselage featuring the original square windows belongs to a Comet 1A registered F-BGNX; it has been restored and is exhibited at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum near St Albans in Hertfordshire, England.[119] A Comet C2 Sagittarius with serial number XK699 (later maintenance number 7971M) was displayed at the entrance of RAF Lyneham in Wiltshire from 1987.[120][121] When RAF Lyneham was scheduled to close in 2012, plans were made to disassemble this aircraft and transfer it to the RAF Museum Cosford for reassembly and public display. However, due to extensive corrosion, most of the airframe was scrapped in 2013; the cockpit section was preserved and moved to the Boscombe Down Aviation Collection at Old Sarum Airfield.[122]

There are six complete Comet 4 models preserved within various museums. The Imperial War Museum Duxford houses a Comet 4 (G-APDB), initially painted in Dan-Air colours as part of its Flight Line Display, later repainted in BOAC livery and exhibited in the AirSpace building.[123] A Comet 4B (G-APYD) is kept in storage at a facility belonging to the Science Museum at Wroughton in Wiltshire.[124] Several Comet 4Cs are displayed at different locations: at Flugausstellung Peter Junior in Hermeskeil, Germany (G-BDIW),[125] near Everett, Washington at the Museum of Flight Restoration Center (N888WA),[111] and at the National Museum of Flight close to Edinburgh, Scotland (G-BDIX).[126]

The final Comet to operate in flight, a Comet 4C known as Canopus (XS235),[85] is maintained in operational condition at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome, where it frequently performs high-speed taxi runs.[127] Since the early 2000s, multiple organizations have expressed interest in restoring Canopus to full airworthy status; it is currently cared for by a volunteer team.[128][84] Additionally, Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome features a related aircraft from the same manufacturer: a Hawker Siddeley Nimrod MR2.[128]

Specifications

Template:Overly detailed

File:De Havilland Comet 3-view line drawing.svg
Comet 4B three-view diagram (front, side, and top perspectives)
File:De Havilland Comet 1 silhouette.jpg
Silhouette of Comet 1 in three views (note the distinctions in the Comet 4 inset, shown at the same scale)
Variant[129] Comet 1 Comet 2 Comet 3 Comet 4
Cockpit crew 4 (two pilots, a flight engineer, and a radio operator/navigator)[130]
Passengers 36–44[11][131] 58–76[95] 56–116[132][11]
Length 93 ft (28 m)[133] 96 ft 1 in (29.29 m)[133] 111 ft 6 in (33.99 m)[95][134]
Tail height 29 ft 6 in (8.99 m)[134]
Wingspan 115 ft (35 m)[134][135]
Wing area 2,015 sq ft (187.2 m2)[133] 2,121 sq ft (197.0 m2)[134]
Aspect ratio 6.56 6.24
Airfoil NACA 63A116 mod at root, NACA 63A112 mod at tip[136]
MTOW 110,000 lb (50,000 kg)[133] 120,000 lb (54,000 kg)[133] 150,000 lb (68,000 kg)[133] 156,000 lb (71,000 kg)[134]
Turbojets (x 4) 'Halford H.2 Ghost' engines by de Havilland Ghost with thrust of 50 'Rolls-Royce Avon' Mk 503/504 engines 'Rolls-Royce Avon' Mk 502/521 engines 'Rolls-Royce Avon' Mk 524 engines
Unit thrust 5,000 lbf (22 kN)[133] 7,000 lbf (31 kN)[133] 10,000 lbf (44 kN)[95] 10,500 lbf (47 kN)[137]
Range 1,300 nmi; 2,400 km[138] 2,300 nmi; 4,200 km[135] 2,300 nmi; 4,300 km[139] 2,802 nmi; 5,190 km[130]
Cruising speed 740 km/h (460 mph)[convert: invalid option][133] [convert: invalid number][135] [convert: invalid number][135][137]
Cruise altitude [convert: invalid number][133][135] [convert: invalid number][135] [convert: invalid number][130]


In popular culture

Main article: De Havilland Comet in fiction

See also

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Template:Aircontent

References

Notes
  1. ↑ At that time, both Lockheed with their Lockheed L-188 Electra and Vickers with the innovative Vickers Viscount dismissed pure jet propulsion advantages, opting instead for turboprop airliners.[3]
  2. ↑ The "Type IV" specifications issued on 3 February 1943 called for a "high-speed mail-carrying airliner powered by gas turbines."[4]
  3. ↑ Between 1944 and 1946, proposals included a three-engine twin-boom design, a rear-engine three-engined canard layout, and a tailless swept-wing model with four podded engines.[6]
  4. ↑ The Ministry’s order for DH 108s was under Operational Requirement OR207 per Specification E.18/45.[7]
  5. ↑ This increase aligned with BOAC’s Specification 22/46.[2]
  6. ↑ Originally designed with a sharper sweep angle near 40˚.[10]
  7. ↑ The "Comet" designation had been previously used by de Havilland’s DH.88 racing plane.[12]
  8. ↑ British South American Airways merged into BOAC in 1949.[2]
  9. ↑ The fuselage sections and nose were subjected to conditions simulating a flight reaching 70,000 ft (21,000 m) altitude at −70 °C (−94 °F), with pressure applied 2,000 times at 9 psi (62 kPa).[9]
  10. ↑ BOAC crews famously demonstrated this by standing pens upright during flights to prove the absence of vibration; the pens consistently remained standing throughout.[31]
  11. ↑ The Sud-Est SE530/532/535 Mistral (FB53) was a single-seat fighter-bomber derivative of the de Havilland Vampire used by L'Armée de l'Air.[42]
  12. ↑ Fuselage alloys detailed in Directorate of Technical Development 564/L.73 and DTD 746C/L90.
  13. ↑ This investigation was conducted under Rule 75 of the Indian Aircraft Rules 1937.[63]
  14. ↑ Cunningham stated: "[the Comet] flew extremely smoothly and responded to the controls in the best way de Havilland aircraft usually did."[67]
  15. ↑ The Abell Committee was chaired by C. Abell, Deputy Operations Director (Engineering) of BOAC, and included members from the Allegation Review Board (A.R.B.), BOAC, and de Havilland.[71]
  16. ↑ On 4 April, Lord Brabazon informed the Minister of Transport that "Although no definite reason for the accident has been established, modifications are being embodied to cover every possibility that imagination has suggested as a likely cause of the disaster. When these modifications are completed and have been satisfactorily flight-tested, the Board sees no reason why passenger services should not be resumed."[72]
  17. ↑ The February 1959 OAG lists eight transatlantic Comet flights weekly from London, alongside 10 BOAC Britannias and 11 DC-7Cs. By April 1960, the schedule included 13 Comets, 19 Britannias, and 6 DC-7Cs. The Comet ceased North Atlantic operations in October 1960, although some flights reportedly occurred during the summer of 1964.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
  18. ↑ The Ministry of Transport later supported BOAC’s purchase of Boeing 707 aircraft powered by Conway engines.[103]
Citations
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Trischler and Helmuth 2003, p. 88.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Birtles 1970, p. 124.
  3. ↑ Kodera et al. 2010, p. 16.
  4. ↑ Jones 2010, p. 60.
  5. ↑ Jackson 1988, p. 453.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Jones 2010, p. 62.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Watkins 1996, p. 39.
  8. ↑ Darling 2001, p. 11.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Birtles 1970, p. 125.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Jones 2010, pp. 62–63.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Winchester 2004, p. 109.
  12. ↑ Jackson 1988, p. 356.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Darling 2001, p. 17.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Darling 2001, p. 18.
  15. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Davies and Birtles 1999, p. 30.
  17. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  18. ↑ Dick and Patterson 2010, pp. 134–137.
  19. ↑ Green and Swanborough April 1977, p. 174.
  20. ↑ Prins 1998, p. 43.
  21. ↑ Swanborough 1962, p. 45.
  22. ↑ Gunn 1987, p. 268.
  23. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Walker25
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Francis 1950, p. 99.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Francis 1950, pp. 100–101.
  26. ↑ Hill 2002, p. 27.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Cookman, Aubery O. Jr. "Commute by Jet." Popular Mechanics, 93(4), April 1950, pp. 149–152.
  28. ↑ Smith 2010. 30(4), pp. 489, 506.
  29. ↑ Francis 1950, p. 98.
  30. ↑ Walker 2000, p. 69.
  31. ↑ Windsor-Liscombe, Rhodri. "Usual Culture: The Jet." Topia: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies (Toronto: York University), Number 11, Spring 2004. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  32. ↑ Francis 1950, p. 100.
  33. ↑ Darling 2001, pp. 35–36.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Darling 2001, p. 36.
  35. ↑ Abzug and Larrabee 2002, pp. 80–81.
  36. ↑ Darling 2001, p. 2.
  37. ↑ Darling 2001, pp. 16–17.
  38. ↑ Darling 2001, p. 40.
  39. ↑ Darling 2001, p. 45.
  40. ↑ "F.R. equipment speeds refuelling." Flight, 11 May 1951. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Darling 2001, pp. 40–41.
  42. ↑ Watkins 1996, pp.181–182.
  43. ↑ Motem 1990, p.143.
  44. ↑ Darling 2001, p.96.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named engineering
  46. ↑ Royal Air Force Museum Cosford. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  47. ↑ Moss, C. J. Flight International, 8 February 1951, p. 169. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  48. ↑ Jefford 2001, pp. 123–125.
  49. ↑ Birtles 1970, p. 132.
  50. ↑ Jones 2010, p. 67.
  51. ↑ Francis 1950, pp. 101–102.
  52. ↑ Darling 2001, pp. 35, 46.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Withuhn 1976, p. 88.
  54. ↑ Francis 1950, p. 103.
  55. ↑ "Ghost engine." Archived 4 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine Royal Air Force Museum Cosford. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  56. ↑ Francis 1950, pp. 98–102.
  57. ↑ Gunn 1987, p. 269.
  58. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named walker190
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External links

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