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Hosni Mubarak

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Hosni Mubarak
File:Hosni Mubarak 2009.jpg
Mubarak in 2009
Born (1928-05-04) 4 May 1928 (age 98)
Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, Egypt
Died2020-02-25
Occupation(s)Military officer, politician
Years active1949–2011
Known forFourth President of Egypt (1981–2011), 41st Prime Minister of Egypt (1981–1982), Commander of Egyptian Air Force (1972–1975)

Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak (; 4 May 1928 – 25 February 2020) was an Egyptian military officer and politician who held the office of Egypt’s fourth president of Egypt from 1981 until 2011. He also served as the country’s 41st prime minister between 1981 and 1982. Prior to his presidency, Mubarak was the 18th vice president under President Anwar Sadat from 1975 until he assumed the presidency. Before entering the political arena, he built a career in the Egyptian Air Force, commanding it from 1972 to 1975 and attaining the rank of air chief marshal in 1973.

Following the assassination of Sadat in 1981, Mubarak ascended to the presidency through a single-candidate referendum, subsequently renewing his mandate in similar referendums held in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Under pressure from the United States, he organized Egypt’s inaugural multi-party election in 2005, which resulted in his victory. In 1989, Mubarak reinstated Egypt’s membership in the Arab League and facilitated the relocation of its headquarters back to Cairo. He was recognized for his endorsement of the Israeli–Palestinian peace process and his influential participation in the Gulf War. Although his tenure saw economic advancement and relative stability, it was also characterized by authoritarian practices: a prolonged state of emergency curtailed political dissent, security agencies were frequently implicated in abuses, and corruption permeated various levels of government.

Mubarak stepped down amid the 2011 Egyptian revolution after widespread protests lasting eighteen days, ceding authority to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. Subsequently, he faced trial for alleged involvement in the deaths of demonstrators during the uprising—marking him as the first Arab leader to be prosecuted in a domestic civilian court. On 2 June 2012, he received a life sentence but soon experienced health complications. The verdict was overturned by Egypt’s highest court on 13 January 2013, which ordered a retrial. In May 2015, Mubarak along with his sons were convicted on corruption charges; while Mubarak was confined to a military hospital, his sons were released later that year. He was ultimately acquitted on 2 March 2017 and freed on 24 March.

Mubarak passed away in 2020 at age ninety-one and was honored with a military funeral, being interred at a family cemetery near Cairo. His nearly three-decade rule made him Egypt’s longest-serving leader since Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1848).

Early life and education

Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha within Egypt’s Monufia Governorate. He completed his studies at the Military Academy on 2 February 1949 before enrolling at the Air Force Academy, where he earned his pilot officer commission on 13 March 1950 along with a bachelor’s degree specializing in aviation sciences.

Air Force career

Mubarak’s early military service included assignments across multiple Egyptian Air Force units, notably two years spent with a Spitfire fighter squadron. During the 1950s, he returned to serve as an instructor at the Air Force Academy until early 1959. Between 1959 and 1961, he underwent advanced pilot training in the Soviet Union, attending schools located in both Moscow and at the Kant Air Base. His training encompassed operating jet bombers such as the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16, followed by attendance at Moscow’s prestigious Frunze Military Academy in 1964.

After returning to Egypt, Mubarak held leadership roles including wing commander and base commander, overseeing Cairo West Air Base in 1966 as well as briefly commanding the air base at Beni Suef. In November 1967, he was appointed commander of the Air Force Academy, where he is credited with doubling pilot and navigator output ahead of the October War. Two years later, he advanced to Chief of Staff of the Egyptian Air Force.

In 1972, Mubarak rose to become Commander of the Air Force and Deputy Minister of Defense. During the October 1973 conflict against Israel, under his command, the Egyptian Air Force launched a surprise offensive targeting Israeli forces east of the Suez Canal, reportedly achieving around a ninety percent success rate against intended targets. This performance earned him national acclaim and promotion to Air Chief Marshal.

While some attributed Egypt’s initial military successes to Mubarak’s leadership, commentators such as Mohamed Hassanein Heikal regarded the Air Force’s impact as primarily psychological—serving to elevate ground troops’ morale during their crossing of the canal. Nonetheless, Mubarak’s role has been contested; Shahdan El-Shazli, daughter of former military Chief of Staff Saad el-Shazly, accused him of overstating his contributions and manipulating records to claim undue credit for achievements during the 1973 war.

Vice President of Egypt

In April 1975, President Anwar Sadat designated Mubarak as Vice President of Egypt. In this capacity, he engaged in governmental deliberations concerning the forthcoming disengagement agreement with Israel. During September 1975, Mubarak visited Riyadh and Damascus aiming to convince Saudi Arabia and Syria to endorse the "Sinai II" disengagement accord; however, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad declined to meet with him. While in Saudi Arabia, Mubarak established a strategic partnership with Crown Prince Fahd, a pivotal figure in revitalizing Egypt-Saudi relations that had been overlooked by Sadat. Additionally, Mubarak cultivated connections with other prominent Arab leaders, including Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud, Oman's Sultan Qaboos, Morocco's King Hassan II, and Sudan's President Jaafar Nimeiry.

Sadat assigned Mubarak to represent Egypt in numerous diplomatic engagements beyond the Arab region, underscoring his expanding political influence. A June 1975 exchange between Foreign Minister Fahmy and US Ambassador Hermann Eilts confirmed Mubarak’s frequent participation in confidential talks and identified him as Sadat’s favored successor. Although supportive of Sadat’s campaign to recover the Sinai Peninsula, Mubarak opposed the Camp David Accords, aligning with Arab leaders who believed the agreement failed to address wider concerns of the Arab–Israeli conflict. At times, Sadat entrusted Mubarak with decision-making responsibilities during his absences.

President of Egypt

Mubarak sustained injuries during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981, carried out by soldiers commanded by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli. Upon Sadat’s death, Mubarak assumed office as Egypt’s fourth president.

Egypt's return to the Arab League

Before Libya's suspension amid the Libyan Civil War, Egypt was unique among Arab League members in having its membership revoked due to Sadat’s peace treaty with Israel. In June 1982, Mubarak met King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, initiating a rapprochement between Egypt and Saudi Arabia. With Egypt as the most populous Arab nation and Saudi Arabia as the wealthiest, their partnership emerged as a leading force within the region. At the 1982 Arab League summit held in Fez, Saudi Arabia introduced an Egyptian peace initiative linking Arab recognition of Israel to resolving the Israeli–Palestinian conflict through the establishment of a Palestinian state.

Following Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini posed a challenge to regional governments, causing concern among Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and others. In reaction, these countries aligned themselves with Egypt to counterbalance Iranian influence. For Gulf leaders such as King Fahd, confronting Iran took precedence over the Israeli–Palestinian dispute, thereby enhancing Egypt’s strategic role.

Throughout the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Egypt provided military and economic support to Iraq, deploying one million Egyptian workers to substitute for Iraqi frontline soldiers. In December 1983, Mubarak welcomed Yasser Arafat of the PLO in Cairo, signifying a strategic reconciliation and positioning Egypt as the principal ally of the PLO. The 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking created strains in U.S.-Egypt relations when an EgyptAir flight carrying hijackers was compelled to land in Italy; Mubarak acknowledged the ensuing diplomatic difficulties.

Despite its isolation following the 1979 Camp David Accords, Egypt capitalized on its regional influence to restore its "central place in the Arab world" by 1989. That year marked Egypt’s reinstatement as a full member of the Arab League and saw the League’s headquarters return to Cairo.

Governing style

During the 1980s, Mubarak significantly boosted the output of low-cost housing, apparel, furniture, and pharmaceuticals. The government sector remained extensive throughout his administration, employing approximately 8 million individuals within a population of 75 million.

Upon ascending to the presidency, Mubarak was among the few Egyptian leaders who declined to visit Israel, adopting a cautious approach toward normalizing diplomatic relations. Israeli media often referred to the relationship as a "cold peace," highlighting the tense and distant nature of bilateral interactions. Mubarak maintained that his policies would not jeopardize future cooperation between Egypt and Israel.

In 2006, Israeli historian Major Efraim Karsh observed that Egyptian media frequently depicted Jews in a negative light and accused Mubarak of endorsing similar antisemitic sentiments. Egypt’s dependence on American aid persisted during his rule, alongside hopes that the United States would exert pressure on Israel to advance a Palestinian peace agreement.

In 1984, Mubarak restored diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, reversing Sadat’s 1981 severance and broadening Egypt’s international alliances.

Early in his presidency, Mubarak expanded the State Security Investigations Service (Mabahith Amn ad-Dawla) and strengthened the Central Security Forces. According to Tarek Osman, witnessing Sadat’s assassination combined with Mubarak’s extensive military background led him to prioritize national security, relying predominantly on interior ministers, military commanders, and intelligence officials rather than political advisors.

Mubarak survived several assassination attempts—six according to BBC reports—due to his opposition to Islamic fundamentalism and engagement with Israel. These included a reported 1995 attack involving poisonous gases by Egyptian Islamic Jihad and a 1999 knife assault in Port Said.

Repression and torture

Throughout Hosni Mubarak's presidency, widespread human rights violations occurred in Egypt, encompassing arbitrary arrests and systematic use of torture. A continuous state of emergency empowered security forces with extensive authority to detain individuals without legal procedures. Human rights groups documented routine torture methods within police stations and detention facilities—such as beatings, electric shocks, suspension by limbs, and sexual abuse. These actions were part of an organized effort to suppress opposition and maintain control over the population. The absence of accountability fostered an environment where impunity prevailed throughout Mubarak’s rule.

Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Mubarak upheld the Camp David Accords brokered by the United States between Egypt and Israel and occasionally facilitated meetings focused on resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In October 2000, he convened an emergency summit in Sharm el-Sheikh attended by prominent figures including Bill Clinton, Yasser Arafat, Ehud Barak, King Abdullah II of Jordan, NATO Secretary General Javier Solana, and UN Secretary General Kofi Annan. He actively backed Arab League initiatives aimed at regional peace efforts, including support for the 2002 Arab Peace Initiative seeking resolution of the Arab–Israeli dispute.

In 2006, Mubarak condemned Israel's military operations in Lebanon but simultaneously criticized Hezbollah for actions detrimental to Arab interests. In June 2007, he organized another summit at Sharm el-Sheikh involving King Abdullah II, Mahmoud Abbas, and Ehud Olmert. Egypt played a key role in brokering a 2008 ceasefire between Israel and Hamas, which required Hamas to cease rocket attacks and enforce the truce in Gaza in exchange for easing the blockade and resuming trade. Nevertheless, compliance was partial; Israel gradually reopened supply routes while accusing Hamas of continued weapons smuggling and attacks. In 2009, Mubarak’s administration prohibited the Cairo Anti-war Conference for its criticism of his policies toward Israel.

Gulf War of 1991

Egypt took part in the 1991 Gulf War as a member of the coalition forces; its ground troops were among the earliest to be deployed to Saudi Arabia to help drive Iraqi troops out of Kuwait. This engagement strengthened Egypt's position as a leader within the Arab region and brought substantial financial benefits to the government, including debt cancellation amounting to up to . According to The Economist, Egypt’s swift alignment with the US-led coalition led to debt relief from the United States, Gulf Arab countries, and European nations, which supported President Hosni Mubarak’s regime.

Position on the 2003 Iraq invasion

Mubarak opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq, emphasizing that resolving the Israeli–Palestinian conflict should be the priority and cautioning that the invasion could result in "100 Bin Ladens." Nevertheless, he refrained from calling for an immediate US withdrawal from Iraq, concerned that such a move might cause further instability in the region.

2005 elections

Mubarak maintained his presidency through uncontested referendums held in 1987, 1993, and 1999, each time nominated by Parliament without opposition. The September 2005 election introduced a multi-candidate format; however, electoral bodies remained under tight presidential influence. Mubarak declared his candidacy on 28 July 2005. Observers documented extensive electoral fraud during this process. In what was widely seen as political repression, opposition contender Ayman Nour from the El-Ghad Party was convicted on forgery charges and sentenced to five years of hard labor in December 2005.

Pervasive corruption

Under Mubarak’s administration, corruption within the Ministry of the Interior intensified notably. Political opponents and activists were frequently detained without trial, with clandestine and illegal detention centers operating covertly. Individuals associated with universities, mosques, and media outlets faced exclusion based on their political beliefs.

In 2005, Freedom House highlighted that Mubarak’s regime had tightened bureaucratic controls that often encouraged corrupt practices, observing that despite pledges for reform, meaningful anti-corruption efforts were absent.

By 2010, Egypt received a score of 3.1 on Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (where 10 denotes very low corruption), placing it 98th out of 178 countries surveyed. This ranking reflected widespread perceptions of corruption among business executives and analysts.

Personal wealth and corruption allegations

In February 2011, ABC News cited experts estimating Mubarak and his family’s fortune between and , primarily accrued through military contracts during his tenure in the air force. The Guardian reported that this wealth likely originated from a combination of corruption, bribes, and legitimate enterprises, with assets held in bank accounts across Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and various foreign properties. Some information was reportedly outdated by about ten years. Newsweek pointed out that these allegations lacked definitive proof.

On 12 February 2011, Swiss authorities froze bank accounts linked to Mubarak’s family. Subsequently, on 20 February, Egypt’s Prosecutor General ordered the freezing of assets belonging to Mubarak, his wife Suzanne, sons Alaa and Gamal, as well as daughters-in-law Heidi Rasekh and Khadiga Gamal, directing coordination with other countries holding their assets. This action followed reports that Mubarak had submitted his financial disclosure form—a mandatory declaration of assets and income sources for government officials. On 21 February, Egypt's Military Council indicated no opposition to Mubarak being charged with corruption.

On 23 February, Eldostor reported that asset freezes and legal pressures were interpreted as signals encouraging Mubarak to leave Egypt after unsuccessful attempts at voluntary departure. Later that month, Voice of America confirmed a travel ban alongside the asset freeze while prosecutors considered additional legal measures. On 21 May 2014, a Cairo court found Mubarak and his sons guilty of embezzling funds originally allocated for renovations on the presidential palace but diverted instead for private residences. The court ordered repayment of , imposed fines totaling , sentenced Mubarak to three years in prison, and handed four-year sentences to each son.

Presidential succession

The National Democratic Party initially kept Hosni Mubarak as its exclusive nominee for the 2011 presidential race. However, on 1 February 2011, Mubarak declared he would not participate in the election. As protests persisted, his vice president confirmed that Gamal Mubarak would not seek the presidency. During the intensifying unrest and Mubarak's eventual downfall, former party member Hamdy El-Sayed alleged that Gamal Mubarak attempted to assume control with backing from then Interior Minister Habib El-Adly.

Revolution and overthrow

In January 2011, demonstrations broke out throughout Cairo and various other cities opposing Mubarak’s administration. On 1 February, Mubarak announced his withdrawal from the upcoming September presidential election and pledged constitutional reforms. Despite this, protesters insisted on his immediate resignation. Tensions escalated between supporters and opponents of Mubarak on 2 February.

By 10 February, Mubarak declared he would stay in office until the scheduled September vote but intended to delegate authority to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman declared Mubarak’s resignation, sparking widespread jubilation and initiating discussions concerning Egypt’s transitional leadership, including considerations for an interim government.

Protests

On 25 January 2011, nationwide protests erupted demanding Mubarak’s resignation. In response, Mubarak insisted he would remain in power and expressed readiness to die on Egyptian soil. Opposition figure Mohamed ElBaradei dismissed this as a ploy to cling to authority. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not seek re-election but planned to finish his term while promising constitutional changes. Protesters rejected this stance, resulting in violent clashes near the Presidential Palace. On 11 February, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced Mubarak’s resignation and the transfer of authority to the Egyptian military.

Shortly thereafter, an Egyptian military representative expressed gratitude to Mubarak for prioritizing national interests and noted the Supreme Council was assessing the situation without specifying forthcoming actions.

Post-overthrow life

After being removed from power, Mubarak refrained from public appearances and reportedly limited communication to family members and trusted aides. There were rumors regarding his declining health, including reports of him being in a coma; he reportedly wished to "die in Sharm El-Sheikh."

On 28 February 2011, Egypt’s General Prosecutor prohibited Mubarak and his family from leaving the country amid possible criminal investigations. They were confined under house arrest at a presidential palace in Sharm el-Sheikh. On 13 April, Mubarak and his sons were detained for fifteen days pending inquiries into corruption and abuse of authority; Gamal and Alaa were imprisoned in Tora Prison, while Mubarak was held in police custody at a hospital near his residence following a heart attack. Former Israeli minister Benjamin Ben Eliezer is said to have offered him asylum in Eilat.

On 11 May 2013, Mubarak granted his first media interview since stepping down, telling El-Watan that history would judge him impartially and commenting on the difficulties faced by President Mohammed Morsi.

Trial

On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was formally charged and ordered to face trial for the deliberate killing of peaceful demonstrators during the revolution, with the death penalty as a potential outcome. The accusations against him encompassed "premeditated murder, attempted homicide of protesters, abuse of power, misappropriation of public funds, and illicit financial gains."

A Cairo court imposed a fine of LE200 million (approximately USD 33.6 million) on Mubarak on 28 May for harming the national economy by suspending Internet and telephone services amid the protests, marking the first judicial action taken against him.

The legal proceedings commenced on 3 August 2011 at a provisional court in Cairo, involving Mubarak alongside his sons Ala'a and Gamal, former interior minister Habib el-Adly, and six police officers. They faced charges related to corruption and murder linked to the protest events. The trial was broadcast live; Mubarak appeared publicly for the first time after stepping down, pleaded not guilty, and was subsequently moved under arrest to a military hospital. Media access was restricted in later sessions.

From December 2011 through January 2012, the trial continued. The defense maintained that Mubarak retained presidential immunity as he had never officially resigned. On 2 June 2012, he was convicted for neglecting to prevent security forces from killing protesters and sentenced to life imprisonment. However, he was acquitted of directly ordering the violent crackdown, and other allegations such as profiteering and economic fraud were dismissed. His sons and other defendants were cleared due to insufficient evidence. The verdict triggered protests by victims' families and mass demonstrations in major public squares.

In January 2013, an appeals court annulled Mubarak’s life sentence and mandated a retrial. He remained detained while facing renewed charges of complicity in May 2013. On 21 August 2013, a court ordered his release; nonetheless, interim Prime Minister Hazem El Beblawi placed him under house arrest.

On 21 May 2014, Mubarak along with his sons were found guilty of embezzlement; Mubarak was sentenced to three years imprisonment while his sons received four-year terms. They were also fined a combined total of USD 2.9 million with additional orders to repay USD 17.6 million.

In November 2014, conspiracy-to-kill charges were dismissed on procedural grounds; corruption accusations were also dropped. On 13 January 2015, Egypt’s Court of Cassation overturned the embezzlement convictions and called for another trial. By May 2015, Mubarak and his sons were once again convicted on corruption-related charges with comparable prison sentences—despite having already served more than three years—and fined roughly USD 16.3 million alongside an extra repayment order amounting to USD 2.7 million. The ruling was met with jeers from supporters present in court.

Support for Sisi

Although largely withdrawn from public view, Mubarak gave a rare interview in February 2014 to Kuwaiti journalist Fajer Al-Saeed, where he voiced his endorsement of then-Defense Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as Egypt’s prospective president. He acknowledged that Sisi was endeavoring to rebuild the trust of the Egyptian populace. Mubarak stated, "The people want Sisi, and the will of the people will prevail." Additionally, he expressed respect and appreciation for the late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates and his family for their unwavering support toward Egypt. However, Mubarak conveyed disapproval towards opposition figure Hamdeen Sabbahi, a Nasserist who follows the ideology of Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Health issues

In July 2010, rumors surfaced suggesting Mubarak might be battling cancer, with speculation targeting esophageal, stomach, or pancreatic types; however, Egyptian officials denied these claims. Following his resignation, concerns about his well-being intensified, with reports indicating depression, refusal to comply with prescribed medication, and episodes of fluctuating consciousness. An anonymous Egyptian security source revealed that Mubarak preferred to pass away in his native country rather than face exile. Egypt’s ambassador to the United States remarked that Mubarak was "possibly experiencing some health difficulties," while certain media outlets alleged he had fallen into a coma.

On 12 April 2011, Mubarak was admitted to hospital after suffering a heart attack amid interrogation concerning corruption allegations. By June 2011, his attorney confirmed that Mubarak was diagnosed with advancing stomach cancer; he had previously undergone surgery in Germany in 2010 and experienced circulatory complications including an irregular heartbeat. Reports in July 2011—though initially unverified—claimed Mubarak had entered a coma following a final public address; this was later affirmed by his legal representative. During his hospitalization and trial preparations, he was said to be depressed and unwilling to consume solid food.

On 2 June 2012, while being transferred to prison after his conviction for involvement in the deaths of protesters, Mubarak suffered a medical emergency, possibly a heart attack. His condition deteriorated further, necessitating multiple defibrillator interventions. On 20 June 2012, state media erroneously announced that Mubarak was "clinically dead," which was later corrected to indicate he remained in critical condition.

On 27 December 2012, Mubarak was moved from Tora Prison to a military hospital in Cairo after sustaining a fall that resulted in a broken rib. He was eventually released from incarceration in August 2013.

On 19 June 2014, while at the military hospital in Cairo, Mubarak experienced another fall causing a fractured left leg and thighbone, requiring surgical treatment. At this stage, he was serving a three-year corruption sentence and awaiting retrial for charges related to protester fatalities during his administration. Despite an official release order, ongoing health complications kept him hospitalized.

Acquittal

On 2 March 2017, Egypt’s Court of Cassation cleared Mubarak of charges related to conspiracy in the killing of protesters during the 2011 uprising. He was subsequently freed on 24 March 2017.

Death

Hosni Mubarak passed away on 25 February 2020 at the age of 91 in a military hospital located in Cairo. A full state funeral took place at Tantawi Mosque in eastern Cairo, followed by interment in Heliopolis. President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi attended the ceremonies and offered condolences to Mubarak’s widow Suzanne and their sons Alaa and Gamal; the government declared three days of national mourning.

After Mubarak’s death, El-Sisi commended his contributions during the Yom Kippur War but refrained from commenting on his tenure as president. The official newspaper Al-Ahram paid tribute to Mubarak’s military service and political career.

Personal life

Mubarak was wed to Suzanne Thabet, with whom he fathered two sons: Alaa and Gamal. Both sons served four-year prison terms for corruption charges and were released in 2015. Mubarak had two grandsons through Alaa—Mohammed (who died in 2009 due to a cerebral hemorrhage) and Omar—and a granddaughter named Farida through Gamal.

In April 2016, Alaa Mubarak appeared in the Panama Papers revelations, linking him to financial dealings associated with Mossack Fonseca.

Domestic

International distinctions

Articles

  • Anagondahalli, Deepa (2013). "Prior reputation and transition from image repair to image makeover: The case study on Hosni Mubarak." Public Relations Review, 39(3), 241–244.
  • Beinin, Joel (2011). "Labor movements and Egypt's January 25 Revolution." International Labor and Working-Class History, 80, 189–196.
  • Brownlee, Jason (2002). "Erosion of pluralism during Mubarak's tenure." Journal of Democracy, 13(4), 6–14.
  • Bou Nassif, Hicham (2013). "Loyalty to Mubarak: The military elite's second careers and financial gains, 1981-2011." Middle East Journal, 67(4), 509–530.
  • Heiss, Andrew (2012). "The unsuccessful management strategies for a declining regime: Hosni Mubarak, Egypt’s National Democratic Party, and January 25 Revolution." Journal of Third World Studies, 28(1), 155–171.
  • Masoud, Tarek (2011). "Revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia: The journey to and from Liberation Square." Journal of Democracy, 22(3), 20–34.
  • Piazza, Bárbara Azaola (2019). "Post-Mubarak Egypt’s foreign policy and enhanced ties with Saudi Arabia: navigating economic vulnerability alongside regional and regime security." The Journal of North African Studies, 24(3), 401–425.

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