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Tupolev Tu-22

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Tupolev
IndustryAerospace
Founded1922
FounderAndrei Tupolev
Headquarters
Moscow
,
Soviet Union
ProductsAircraft, including the Tupolev Tu-22 bomber


For the later, variable-sweep wing bomber, see Tupolev Tu-22M.

Template:Infobox aircraft

The Tupolev Tu-22 (designated Blinder by the Air Standardization Coordinating Committee) was the Soviet Union’s first supersonic bomber to enter mass production. Built by Tupolev, this aircraft was introduced into service with both Long-Range Aviation and Soviet Naval Aviation during the 1960s.

Despite its groundbreaking speed capabilities, the Tu-22 fell short of expectations in terms of both velocity and operational range. It was also known for being challenging to operate and maintain. Compared to the Tupolev Tu-16, which it was intended to replace, the Tu-22 was produced in relatively limited quantities. Later on, it was modified for alternative functions such as reconnaissance (Tu-22R) and as a platform for deploying the long-range Kh-22 anti-shipping missile.

The Tu-22 was exported to several countries, including Libya and Iraq. Libyan-operated Tu-22s saw combat during conflicts with Tanzania and Chad, while Iraqi Tu-22s were active in the course of the Iran–Iraq War.

Preceding designs

Andrei Tupolev’s OKB-156 bureau had previously reverse-engineered the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress to create the Tupolev Tu-4. However, their proposals for more advanced bombers were sidelined politically. In 1953, under Joseph Stalin’s directive, OKB-23 was established with Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev at the helm to develop new long-range bomber projects. This bureau was formed by transferring designers from Tupolev’s OKB-156 and began work on the four-engine jet-powered Myasishchev M-4 intercontinental bomber.

To maintain their presence in bomber development, OKB-156 designed a twin-engine jet medium bomber, the Tupolev Tu-16. Recognizing that this design lacked sufficient range for intercontinental missions, they also proposed a four-turboprop aircraft, the Tupolev Tu-95, to fulfill that role. Ultimately, neither the M-4 nor the Tu-16 met full range requirements for strategic missions against the United States; only the Tu-95 possessed adequate reach despite some performance compromises. The M-4 was produced in limited numbers while the Tu-16 found broader application across multiple roles.

Supersonic replacements

At the time when these aircraft were still being introduced, the State Committee for Aviation Technology—soon to be renamed the Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP)—initiated a competition seeking supersonic designs to succeed all earlier models. Sergey Mikhailovitch Yeger, Tupolev's lead designer, was determined not to be outdone by Myasishchev once more.

In response, they rapidly developed a new concept called Samolyot 103 (Plane 103), which was essentially a Tu-16 airframe equipped with four significantly more powerful engines, either Dobrynin VD-7s or Mikulin AM-13s. However, insights gained from the experimental Samolyot 98 tactical bomber indicated that the 103 would likely fail to achieve supersonic speeds. Consequently, the team opted to abandon this approach and begin anew with a completely fresh design.

After evaluating numerous proposals from TsAGI, Yeger ultimately chose what evolved into Samolyot 105 in 1954. A notable feature of this design was the decision to have a single pilot without a copilot, which allowed for a narrower cockpit since only one individual needed forward visibility for runway approach. This adjustment also had favorable political implications by reducing the crew complement to three.

Meanwhile, Myasishchev was developing his much larger Myasishchev M-50 to meet the same requirements. The M-50 was intended to possess intercontinental range, fulfilling the role initially envisioned for the M-4. Both Tupolev’s and Myasishchev’s designs received approval for prototype construction in 1954.

During this period, knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics was still developing, as were the jet engines intended to power these aircraft. For the 105, three engine types were under consideration: the VD-5, VD-7, and the newly designed Kuznetsov NK-6. Among them, the NK-6 promised superior performance but remained in early development stages. Given the risk that these engines might not reach their anticipated output—potentially leaving the 105 underpowered—significant efforts focused on refining aerodynamic efficiency to meet speed targets. This emphasis was evident in the wing and landing gear design, which aimed for maximum cleanliness; notably, main wheels retracted into the fuselage to enable a thinner wing profile.

Simultaneously, experiments conducted at LII wind tunnels uncovered a tendency for aircraft to pitch upward near Mach 1 speeds.[lower-alpha 1] To address this issue, designers relocated the engines from their traditional wing-root positions (as seen on the Tu-16) to an unconventional placement on either side of the vertical stabilizer at the tail. This arrangement also contributed to reduced drag and minimized inlet losses.

The wings featured a steep sweep angle between 52 and 55°, minimizing drag at transonic velocities but consequently causing suboptimal takeoff characteristics and elevated landing speeds.

Prototypes

The initial prototype, designated 105, was finalized and delivered to the Flight Test and Development Base located at Zhukovsky in August 1957. Its maiden flight occurred on 21 June 1958, piloted by test pilot Yuri Alasheev.[1][2] Early test flights revealed that the aircraft did not meet the anticipated speed or range requirements. Around this period, TsAGI obtained KGB intelligence concerning the area rule technique for reducing transonic aerodynamic drag, which was subsequently incorporated into the 105 design. A significant challenge was the excessive thickness of the wing root, which limited effective application of this principle; to address this, a redesigned landing gear was implemented,Template:Explain alongside multiple adjustments to the cabin and tail configurations.[3]

These modifications culminated in the 105A, which took to the skies for its first flight on 7 September 1959.[4] Around this time, an order for serial production of 20 units was placed, even though testing was ongoing. The first production model Tu-22B bomber, manufactured at Factory No. 22 in Kazan, completed its inaugural flight on 22 September 1960,[5] and the aircraft was publicly unveiled during the Tushino Aviation Day parade on 9 July 1961 with a formation flypast of ten planes.[6] Initially assigned the NATO reporting name 'Bullshot', which was later considered unsuitable, it was renamed 'Beauty', deemed overly flattering, and finally settled as 'Blinder'.[7] Soviet aircrews nicknamed it "shilo" (awl) due to its distinctive shape.[5]

Into service

File:TU-22 Blinder.JPG
Tu-22 displayed at the Monino Russian Federation Central Air Force Museum

The Tu-22 officially entered operational service in 1962,[5] but encountered numerous difficulties resulting in frequent unserviceability and several accidents. Among its many shortcomings was a tendency for aerodynamic heating of the airframe skin during supersonic flight, which caused distortion of control rods and impaired handling characteristics. Its landing speed exceeded that of previous bombers by approximately 100 km/h (62 mph), and it exhibited a propensity to pitch upward and strike its tail upon touchdown—although this issue was eventually mitigated through the introduction of electronic stabilization systems. Despite partial resolution of these challenges, flying the Blinder remained demanding and required intensive maintenance. One particularly troublesome feature was its wing design, which permitted aileron reversal at elevated speeds. After neutralizing the control stick following such an event, wing deformation could persist, potentially rendering the aircraft nearly uncontrollable.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

The initial pilots assigned to Tu-22 squadrons were drawn from "First Class" Tu-16 aviators, making adaptation difficult since the Tu-16 operated with a co-pilot. Many of these experienced pilots had grown accustomed to delegating nearly all flight operations—aside from takeoffs and landings—to their co-pilots. Consequently, when transitioning to the single-pilot Tu-22 with a more complex cockpit environment, many struggled to manage all piloting responsibilities alone and failed to complete training. Eventually, pilots were selected from crews familiar with the Su-17 "Fitter," who adapted more readily to the new aircraft.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

Variants

File:Tupolev Tu-22 Blinder, Soviet Union - Air Force JP7659462.jpg
A Soviet technician inspects the 23 mm R-23 cannon mounted in the remotely operated tail turret

When the Tu-22B (Blinder-A) was introduced into service, its operational capabilities were deemed somewhat restricted. Although it boasted high speed, it lagged behind the Tu-16 in terms of combat range, payload capacity, and maintainability. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev favored ballistic missiles as the future strategic weapon, placing aircraft like the Tu-22 at risk of program termination. Consequently, production was limited to only 15 (some accounts cite 20) Tu-22Bs.

During the Tu-22's rollout, the Strategic Rocket Forces were established in 1959, and Tupolev alongside project supporters recognized that crewed bombers were increasingly less favored for nuclear delivery. To preserve the program, Tupolev suggested adapting the aircraft into a long-range aerial reconnaissance platform capable of being converted back to a bomber role as needed.

This led to the introduction of the combat-ready Tu-22R (Blinder-C) in 1962. Equipped optionally with an aerial refueling probe—later standard on most Tu-22s—the Tu-22R’s operational range was significantly extended. A total of 127 units were produced, with 62 assigned to Soviet Naval Aviation (AVMF) for maritime patrol missions. Some of these reconnaissance variants had their camera and sensor equipment removed and were exported as Tu-22Bs; however, in other respects they remained closer in configuration to the Tu-22R than earlier Tu-22B models.

Simultaneously, a trainer variant known as the Tu-22U (Blinder-D) was introduced, featuring an elevated second cockpit for instructor pilots. This model lacked tail armament and was not intended for combat; 46 examples were manufactured.

To accommodate the newly developed Kh-22 (AS-4 Kitchen) anti-ship missile—which was too heavy for the Tu-16 and required greater speed than the Tu-95 could provide—the Tu-22 was modified into a missile carrier version called the Tu-22K (Blinder-B). It entered operational service in December 1968, with 76 units produced between 1965 and 1969. The Tu-22K was capable of carrying a single Kh-22 missile within a redesigned weapons bay and served both Long Range Aviation and AVMF units.

The final variant introduced was the Tu-22P (Blinder-E), an electronic warfare aircraft initially deployed for electronic intelligence collection. Some were later converted into stand-off electronic countermeasure jamming platforms supporting Tu-22K missile carriers. Typically, each Tu-22 regiment included one squadron equipped with these aircraft.

Throughout its service life, the Tu-22 underwent enhancements such as more powerful engines, retrofitting with aerial refueling capability where absent initially, and upgraded avionics. Models equipped for extended range through in-flight refueling bore the -D suffix (from Dalni, meaning long-range).

During the 1970s, Tu-22s were exported to Iraq and Libya; however, a request from Egypt was denied due to Soviet opposition related to the Yom Kippur War.

Design

The Tu-22 features a mid-low wing configuration swept back at an angle of 55°. Its two powerful turbojet engines, initially the Dobrynin VD-7M generating 159 kN of thrust and later upgraded to the Kolesov RD-7M2 producing 162 kN, are positioned atop the rear fuselage on either side of the prominent vertical stabilizer, complemented by a tailplane mounted low. Following a characteristic Tupolev OKB design approach, the primary landing gear retracts into pods located at the trailing edge of each wing. The sharply swept wings minimized drag during transonic flight but caused elevated landing speeds and extended takeoff distances. Consequently, this restricted operations to premier airfields equipped with runways no shorter than 3000 meters.

File:Tu-22 parked.jpg
A parked Tupolev Tu-22

Within the cockpit, the pilot is seated forward and slightly offset to the left, with the weapons officer positioned behind and the navigator located beneath them inside the fuselage. All crew members occupy downward-ejecting seats, which require a minimum ejection altitude of 350 meters, rendering them unusable during takeoff or landing phases—periods when most accidents occur. Crew ingress involved lowering the seats along rails, ascending external ladders to sit down, and then elevating into position within the cockpit.

Pilots often criticized the cockpit layout for its cluttered array of levers and controls, which earned it comparisons to a hedgehog. Some controls were beyond reach, prompting pilots to employ improvised tools such as metal hooks to operate them. Visibility issues were compounded by a high instrument panel on the right side that obstructed runway views during crosswind landings with winds from the left. Due to this limitation, novice pilots were prohibited from flying in crosswinds exceeding a fresh breeze on the Beaufort scale.

Crew air supply was sourced from engine compressor bleed air, which was initially very hot and required cooling before entering the cockpit. Cooling was achieved through a large single-use evaporator utilizing a mixture of 40% ethanol and 60% distilled water—essentially vodka—earning the aircraft the nickname "supersonic booze carrier." Since this system vented coolant after use, there was a risk of depletion during flight, forcing crews to balance comfort against coolant availability. Numerous incidents occurred where crew members consumed this coolant mixture and became intoxicated, leading Soviet Air Force authorities to impose stricter post-flight access controls and more frequent coolant level inspections. Despite these measures, consumption persisted.

Defensive weaponry operated by the weapons officer included a remotely controlled tail turret mounted beneath the engine pods housing a single 23 mm Rikhter R-23 cannon. The turret was guided by a compact PRS-3A Argon gun-laying radar due to the weapons officer’s lack of rearward visibility and for enhanced targeting accuracy compared to optical systems. The aircraft’s primary armament resided in an internal bomb bay situated between the wings, capable of accommodating various free-fall munitions—up to 24 FAB-500 general-purpose bombs, one massive FAB-9000 bomb weighing 9000 kg, or assorted nuclear ordnance. On Tu-22K variants, this bay was modified to carry a single Raduga Kh-22 (NATO codename AS-4 Kitchen) missile partially recessed beneath the fuselage. The sheer size of this missile notably affected handling characteristics and performance while also presenting safety challenges.

Early Tu-22B models employed an optical bombing system retained in Tu-22R reconnaissance variants alongside Rubin-1A navigation/attack radar. The Tu-22K incorporated Leninets PN ('Down Beat' in NATO terminology) for Kh-22 missile guidance. Reconnaissance-configured Tu-22Rs could alternatively carry camera arrays or APP-22 jamming equipment within their bomb bays instead of bombs. Some Tu-22Rs were equipped with Kub ELINT systems and later outfitted with under-fuselage pallets housing M-202 Shompol side-looking airborne radar along with cameras and infrared line scanners. A limited number of Tu-22Ks were converted into Tu-22KP or Tu-22KPD variants fitted with Kurs-N SIGINT gear designed to detect enemy radar emissions and enable compatibility with Kh-22P anti-radiation missiles.

Libya

File:F-4N of VF-51 intercepts Libyan Tu-22 1977.jpg
An F-4N from VF-51 intercepts a Libyan Tu-22 in 1977

The Libyan Arab Republic Air Force deployed the Tu-22 during the 1979 conflict against Tanzania, supporting its Ugandan allies in the Uganda–Tanzania War. On 29 March 1979, a lone Tu-22 carried out a bombing sortie targeting Mwanza, which ultimately failed to achieve its objectives.

Libyan Tu-22 bombers were also active in the Chadian–Libyan conflict, conducting airstrikes across western Sudan and Chad. Their initial mission over Chad took place on 9 October 1980, striking forces loyal to Hissène Habré near the Chadian capital, N'Djamena. Sporadic bombing operations by limited numbers of Tu-22s persisted until November 1981, including an attack on Omdurman in September 1981 that resulted in three civilian fatalities and 20 injuries, before a ceasefire was established.

Hostilities resumed in July 1983, with Libyan air assets, including Tu-22s, targeting Habré’s supporters. This period of combat ended with another ceasefire until early 1986 when Libyan-backed forces launched a new offensive. On 17 February 1986, in retaliation for the French Operation Épervier strike on the Libyan Ouadi Doum Airbase runway the previous day, a single Tu-22B executed an attack on N'Djamena’s airfield. The bomber evaded French radar by flying at low altitude over the desert for more than 1,100 km (700 mi), then accelerated beyond Mach 1, ascended to approximately 5,000 m (16,500 ft), and released three heavy bombs. Despite its high speed and altitude, the strike was highly accurate: two bombs struck the runway and one destroyed the taxiway, causing the airfield to remain closed for several hours. The returning aircraft experienced technical difficulties; U.S. early warning reconnaissance planes stationed in Sudan intercepted distress signals from the Tu-22 pilot, who likely crashed before reaching Aouzou base—possibly downed by antiaircraft fire near N'Djamena airport.

Two days later, on 19 February, another LARAF Tu-22 attempted to bomb N'Djamena again. According to Libyan sources, this mission was thwarted after detection prompted scrambling of two Mirage F1 fighters for interception. However, French military personnel present in Chad reported no encounters with Libyan aircraft on that date. On 8 August 1987, one bomber was shot down by captured 2K12 Kub (SA-6) surface-to-air missiles during an attack on an abandoned Libyan base at Aouzou. Eyewitnesses indicated that the pilot ejected but his parachute appeared engulfed in flames.

Another loss occurred on the morning of 7 September 1987 when two Tu-22Bs bombed N'Djamena; one bomber was downed by a French battery equipped with MIM-23 Hawk SAMs from the 402nd Air Defence Regiment, resulting in the death of an East German crew. This mission marked the final deployment of Tupolev Tu-22s in the Chadian–Libyan conflict.

The last recorded flight of a Libyan Blinder took place on 7 September 1992. Due to scarcity of spare parts, these aircraft are likely no longer operational. Nevertheless, seven remain visible at Al Jufra Air Base (Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#coordinates" was not found.). They were reportedly succeeded by Su-24 bombers.

Iraq

During the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, Iraq actively employed its Tu-22 bombers. The conflict's opening day saw a Tu-22 stationed at H-3 Air Base target an Iranian fuel storage facility at Mehrabad International Airport, Tehran. This strike, combined with other Iraqi operations, contributed to an early shortage of aviation fuel for Iranian forces. However, most initial raids achieved limited success, as numerous missions were aborted due to robust Iranian air defenses and effective counterattacks on Iraqi airbases. Iran reported shooting down three Tu-22s in October 1980: one on the 6th near Tehran, and two more on the 29th—one close to Najafabad by an AIM-54 Phoenix missile launched from an F-14 interceptor, and another over Qom.

In the course of the War of the Cities, Iraq utilized its Tu-22s alongside Tu-16s, Su-22s, and MiG-25s to conduct bombing raids on cities such as Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz. These aerial offensives were supported by Iraqi launches of Scud and Al Hussein missiles. Iran responded with its own Scud missile strikes targeting Iraqi urban centers. The Iraqi Air Force showed particular enthusiasm for deploying the massive 9,000 kg (20,000 lb) FAB-9000 general-purpose bomb. Expert Tu-22 crews employed supersonic toss bombing tactics at safe distances, enabling precise delivery while minimizing exposure to enemy anti-aircraft fire. Due to intensive usage depleting imported Soviet stocks, Iraq began producing a domestic variant known as the Nassir-9.

In the closing phases of the "Tanker War," Iraqi Tu-22s participated in significant strikes. On 19 March 1988, a formation of four Tu-22s accompanied by six Mirage F.1 fighters attacked Iranian oil tankers near Kharg Island. The Tu-22s succeeded in sinking one supertanker and igniting another, while the Mirages inflicted damage with Exocet missiles on an additional tanker. A subsequent raid against Kharg Island that same day met stronger Iranian defenses, resulting in the loss of two Tu-22s. These missions marked the final combat sorties flown by Iraqi Tu-22s during this conflict. Overall, Iraq lost seven Tu-22 bombers throughout the war, with several others sustaining heavy damage. The surviving aircraft were ultimately destroyed during American air strikes in the 1991 Gulf War.

Soviet Union

The Tu-22 saw its sole combat deployment by the Soviet forces in 1988, coinciding with the Soviet military's exit from the Afghan conflict. During this operation, Tu-22P Blinder-E electronic warfare aircraft were assigned to shield the retreat corridor leading back to Soviet territory. Radar-jamming Tu-22PD models provided cover for Tu-22M3 Backfire-C bombers operating out of the Mary-2 airbase in the Turkmen SSR, conducting sorties near the Pakistan border. Their role involved safeguarding these strike bombers against Pakistani F-16 air defense responses and disrupting radar installations that could facilitate Pakistani F-16 interceptions of Soviet bombers along the frontier.[8] Alongside their electronic warfare responsibilities, Tu-22PD crews also carried out photoreconnaissance flights to evaluate bombing effectiveness.[9]

Over time, the Tu-22 was systematically retired from Soviet service as it was replaced by the more advanced Tupolev Tu-22M. At the moment of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 154 units remained operational; however, none are believed to be active today.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

Variants

A total of 311 Tu-22 aircraft across all variants were manufactured, with production concluding in 1969. The breakdown includes: 15 bomber versions (B), approximately 127 reconnaissance types (R, RD, RK, RDK, and RDM), 47 electronic intelligence (ELINT) models (P and PD), 76 missile carrier variants (K, KD, KP, and KPD), and 46 trainer aircraft (U and UD).

File:Tupolev Tu-22KD, Ukraine - Air Force AN1400622.jpg
Tu-22KD armed with a Kh-22 missile at the Poltava Museum of Long-Range and Strategic Aviation
File:Tupolev Tu-22P three-view silhouette and Tu-22U side-view silhouette.png
Silhouettes of Tu-22P Blinder-E and Tu-22U Blinder-D
File:Туполев Ту-22 , Энгельс RP26490.jpg
Tu-22U trainer aircraft
Tu-22B (Blinder-A)
The initial free-fall bomber model, with only 15 units produced. Most were eventually repurposed for training or testing roles. Twelve have been dismantled since; as of 2023, three remain preserved in Russian museums.
Tu-22A
An export variant derived from the bomber version. Ten were sold to Iraq and fourteen to Libya. Some sources refer to this model as Tu-22B.
Tu-22M
Although sharing a similar designation, this was a fundamentally different design featuring variable-sweep wings and is not a direct variant of the Tu-22; its naming was influenced primarily by political considerations.
Tu-22R (Blinder-C)
A reconnaissance platform that maintained bombing capabilities.
Tu-22RD
A refueled version of the Tu-22R equipped with aerial refueling systems.
Tu-22RK
Reconnaissance aircraft retaining bombing functions and upgraded in the 1970s with Kub ELINT technology.
Tu-22RDK
A refueled iteration of the Tu-22RK.
Tu-22RDM
An enhanced reconnaissance model converted from earlier RD units during the early 1980s featuring instrumentation housed in a removable pod.
Tu-22P (Blinder-E)
Designed for electronic warfare missions.
Tu-22PD
A refueled variant of the Tu-22P.
Tu-22K (Blinder-B)
Missile carrier introduced in 1965, configured to deploy the Raduga Kh-22 (AS-4 Kitchen) missile.
Tu-22KD
Refueled version of the Tu-22K.
Tu-22KP
Introduced around 1968, this variant combined electronic warfare capabilities with bombing functions and carried the Kh-22P anti-radiation missile.
Tu-22KPD
Refueled version of the Tu-22KP.
Tu-22U (Blinder-D)
Trainer model used for pilot instruction.
Tu-22UD
Refueled variant of the Tu-22U.

Former Users

File:Blinder operators.png
Previous operators of the Tu-22
Template:Country data Libya
  • Libyan Air Force – operated 14 Tu-22As and 2 Tu-22UDs. Phased out in the early 2000s due to spare parts shortages.
Template:Flagcountry
File:Flag of Russia (1991–1993).svg Russia
Template:Country data Ukraine
Template:USSR
  • Soviet Air Forces – following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, aircraft were allocated to Russian and Ukrainian Air Forces.
  • 6212th aviation equipment liquidation base, military unit 25855 located in Engels. Responsible for scrapping Tu-22s starting in 1993.
  • Soviet Naval Aviation
    • 30th Independent Long-Range Aviation Regiment (ODRAP) of the Black Sea Fleet Air Force, military unit 56126, initially stationed at Saki-4, later moved to Oktyabrskoye. Operated Tu-22s from 1965 until 1993. Subsequently reorganized as the 198th separate long-range reconnaissance aviation squadron with twelve crews before disbanding in 1995.
    • 15th ODRAP of the Baltic Fleet Air Force, military unit 49206 based at Chkalovsk. Operated from 1962 until June 1989 before transitioning to Su-24 aircraft.

Specifications (Tu-22R)

Orthographic view of the Tupolev Tu-22.
Orthographic view of the Tupolev Tu-22.

Template:Aircraft specs

Further reading

  • Gordon, Yefim and Vladimir Rigmant. Tupolev Tu-22 'Blinder' Tu-22M 'Backfire': Russia's Long-Range Supersonic Bombers. Leicester: Midland Publishing, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-065-6


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  1. ↑ Zaloga 1998, pp. 59–60.
  2. ↑ Duffy & Kandalov 1996, p. 124.
  3. ↑ Burdin & Dawes 2006, p. 16.
  4. ↑ Zaloga 1998, p. 60.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Zaloga 1998, p. 61.
  6. ↑ Gunston 1961, p. 109.
  7. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  8. ↑ Burdin & Dawes 2006, p. 185.
  9. ↑ Burdin & Dawes 2006, p. 188.
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