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Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38

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Adapted from the English Wikipedia article Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38, available under CC BY-SA 4.0Updated 29 November 202529 sources
Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft
IndustryAerospace, Defence
Founded1912 in Coventry, United Kingdom
Headquarters
Coventry
,
United Kingdom
ProductsAircraft, including Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38 Whitley bomber


Template:Infobox aircraft

The Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38 Whitley was a British medium to heavy bomber aircraft developed during the 1930s. It was among three twin-engine medium bombers serving with the Royal Air Force (RAF) at the start of the Second World War. Alongside the Vickers Wellington and Handley Page Hampden, the Whitley was designed in response to the mid-1930s Air Ministry Specification B.3/34, which it was ultimately chosen to fulfill. Entering RAF squadron service in 1937, it was the earliest of these three bombers to be introduced.

After war commenced in September 1939, the Whitley took part in the RAF’s initial bombing mission over Germany and played a key role during the early phase of Britain's bombing campaign. By 1942, it was replaced in frontline bombing duties by larger four-engine "heavy bombers" such as the Avro Lancaster.[1] Beyond its bombing role, it served Coastal Command in maritime reconnaissance and was utilized for secondary roles including glider towing, training, and transport. The aircraft also saw civilian use when acquired by British Overseas Airways Corporation as a freight carrier. The Whitley’s name derives from Whitley, a district of Coventry where Armstrong Whitworth's main manufacturing plant was located.

Origins

Scale comparison diagram illustrating the trio of British twin-engine medium bombers at the outbreak of WWII; Whitley (pink), Vickers Wellington (blue), and Handley Page Hampden (yellow)

In July 1934, the Air Ministry released Specification B.3/34 seeking a heavy night bomber that could also serve as a troop transport, intended to replace the biplane Handley Page Heyford.[2] This dual-purpose design aligned with RAF strategies for conflicts across remote areas of the British Empire, where aircraft would deliver troops into combat zones and then provide aerial support.

John Lloyd, Armstrong Whitworth's Chief Designer, responded with his AW.38 proposal, later named Whitley after the company's primary factory location. The AW.38 evolved from the earlier Armstrong Whitworth AW.23 bomber-transport project, which had been unsuccessful against the Bristol Bombay in meeting Specification C.26/31.[2]

Lloyd selected the Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX radial engine to power the Whitley, delivering approximately 795 hp (593 kW).[2] A pioneering feature was its use of a three-bladed two-position variable-pitch propeller manufactured by de Havilland, marking the first time such technology flew on an aircraft.[2]

Initially unfamiliar with fitting flaps on large heavy monoplanes, Lloyd omitted them from early designs. Instead, to ensure adequate takeoff and landing performance, the mid-mounted wings were set at a steep angle of incidence (8.5°).[3] Flaps were incorporated late in development but without reducing wing incidence; this caused the Whitley to cruise with a pronounced nose-down attitude that increased aerodynamic drag.[3][4]

The Whitley was notable as the RAF’s first aircraft featuring a semi-monocoque fuselage construction with slab-sided design to simplify manufacturing.[1] This replaced Armstrong Whitworth’s traditional tubular frame approach, instead utilizing light-alloy rolled sections, pressings, and corrugated panels for structural integrity.[2] Aviation historian Philip Moyes regarded this semi-monocoque structure as a significant advancement, contributing to many Whitleys surviving substantial combat damage.[2]

Due to urgent requirements to replace existing biplane heavy bombers, an initial batch of 80 aircraft was approved in June 1935—split evenly between early Whitley Mk I and more advanced Whitley Mk II variants.[3] Production took place across three Coventry facilities: fuselage and component fabrication at Whitley Abbey; panel work and detailing at the former Coventry Ordnance Works plant; and wing construction plus final assembly at Baginton Aerodrome (Coventry Airport).[3] Orders were placed before prototype flights had occurred—an "off-the-drawing-board" procurement approach common at that time.[3]

The first prototype K4586 completed its maiden flight on 17 March 1936 from Baginton Aerodrome under test pilot Alan Campbell-Orde.[5] It was powered by two Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX radial engines producing 795 horsepower (593 kW) each. The second prototype K4587 featured more powerful supercharged Tiger XI engines.[6] These prototypes closely resembled production models; ultimately, thirty-four Whitley Mk I aircraft were manufactured.[7]

Further development

Following the completion of the initial 34 aircraft, the original engines were substituted with the more dependable two-speed-supercharged Tiger VIII units. The 27th Whitley produced, K7243, is thought to have functioned as a prototype after undergoing alterations. This modified aircraft was designated the Whitley Mk II, with 46 units manufactured to this specification. One particular Whitley Mk II, K7243, was utilized as a test platform for the 1,200 hp (890 kW) 21-cylinder radial Armstrong Siddeley Deerhound engine; its maiden flight with this powerplant occurred on 6 January 1939.[8] Additionally, another Whitley Mk I, K7208, was adapted to support an increased gross weight of 33,500 lb (15,200 kg).

The 29th aircraft built, K7211, served as the prototype for the enhanced Whitley Mk III. This version incorporated several upgrades, including replacing the manually operated nose turret with a single powered Nash & Thompson turret and introducing a hydraulically powered retractable twin-gun ventral "dustbin" turret. However, due to its complexity and the significant drag it created, the ventral turret was unique to the Mk III model. Further modifications comprised increased dihedral on the outer wing sections, improved navigation equipment, and new bomb rack installations. In total, 80 Whitley Mk III aircraft were produced.

Although the Tiger VIII engines fitted to Whitley Mks II and III offered greater reliability than earlier versions, a re-engining initiative in 1938 introduced Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, resulting in the Whitley Mk IV. Initially, three Mk I aircraft—K7208, K7209, and K7211—were re-engined as prototypes. These new powerplants significantly enhanced performance.[1] Additional modifications included replacing the manually operated tail and retractable ventral turrets with a Nash & Thompson powered tail turret armed with four .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns, augmenting fuel capacity by adding two extra wing tanks. Forty units combining Whitley Mk IV and its sub-variant Mk IVA—equipped with more potent Merlin engines—were completed.

Subsequently, minor refinements led to the development of the Whitley Mk V. These improvements encompassed redesigned tail fins and rudders, installation of leading edge de-icers, further fuel capacity augmentation, adoption of a smaller D/F loop housed within a streamlined fairing, and extension of the rear fuselage by 15 in (381 mm) to enhance the rear gunner’s field of fire. The Mk V became by far the most widely produced version, with 1,466 aircraft manufactured before production ceased in June 1943.[1]

The last variant constructed was the Whitley Mk VII, developed specifically for RAF Coastal Command operations. Unlike previous models designed primarily as bombers, this version was equipped for maritime reconnaissance roles. A Whitley Mk V, designated P3949, served as the prototype for this variant. In total, 146 Mk VIIs were built, with additional conversions from existing Mk V airframes. The Mk VII featured a sixth crew member responsible for operating the new ASV Mk II radar system and had increased fuel capacity to support extended anti-shipping patrols. Some Mk VIIs were later converted into trainer aircraft by adding extra seating and instrumentation tailored for flight engineers.

Early Whitley variants utilized bomb bay doors secured by bungee cords on both fuselage and wing bays; these doors opened under bomb weight during release and closed afterward due to bungee tension. This system caused inconsistent delays in door operation that adversely affected bombing accuracy.[4] The hydraulic bomb bay doors introduced with the Mk III significantly enhanced bombing precision. For bomb aiming purposes, the bomb aimer accessed a hatch in the nose that extended the bombsight outside the fuselage; however, in the Mk IV this hatch was replaced by an elongated transparent plexiglas panel that improved crew comfort while maintaining visibility.[9]

Design

A Browning machine gun being fitted into a Whitley turret, 1940

The Armstrong Whitworth Whitley was a heavy bomber powered by two engines. Early versions utilized a pair of 795 hp (593 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX radial engines.[10] Later Whitley models, beginning with the Mk IV, replaced these with two 1,030 hp (770 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin IV V12 engines,[11] which significantly enhanced the aircraft's performance according to Moyes.[12]

The crew consisted of five members: a pilot, co-pilot/navigator, bomb aimer, wireless operator, and rear gunner. Positioned side-by-side in the cockpit were the pilot and co-pilot/navigator, while the wireless operator was seated further aft. The navigator’s seat was mounted on rails allowing it to slide backward and pivot leftward to access the chart table located behind him after takeoff.[9] The bomb aimer operated from the nose section beneath a gun turret situated directly above. The fuselage behind the wireless operator was horizontally divided by the bomb bay; aft of this bay was the main access door, followed by the rear turret.[9] Bombs were stored in two main bays within the fuselage and supplemented by 14 smaller compartments in the wings.[3] Other references mention 16 storage cells: two groups of two in the fuselage and four groups of three in the wings, along with two smaller compartments for parachute flares located in the rear fuselage.[9] The Whitley Mk III variant featured bomb racks designed to carry larger ordnance.[7]

Initially, the Whitley was equipped with manually operated nose and rear turrets, each armed with a single Vickers 0.303 machine gun. On the Mk III model, this setup was notably updated: a retractable ventral ‘dustbin’ turret housing twin .303 British (7.7 mm) M1919 Browning machine guns was introduced, and the nose turret was upgraded to a power-operated model manufactured by Nash & Thompson.[7] The Mk IV replaced both tail and ventral turrets with a Nash & Thompson power-driven tail turret fitted with four Browning .303 machine guns; this configuration made the Whitley one of the most heavily defended bombers against rear attacks at the time.[12]

Paratroopers inside a Whitley's fuselage, August 1942

The fuselage structure consisted of three sections, with main frames riveted directly to the skin and intermediate sections attached to internal flanges on longitudinal stringers.[2] Extensive use of Alclad metal sheeting was employed throughout. Fuel storage included three tanks: two 182 imp gal (830 L; 219 US gal) tanks embedded in each outer wing’s leading edge and a single 155 imp gal (700 L; 186 US gal) tank located atop the fuselage above the spar center section; additionally, two auxiliary tanks could be installed within the forward bomb bay compartment. Oil tanks were positioned inboard within the leading edges and functioned as radiant oil coolers.[3][9] To simplify manufacturing processes, efforts were made to minimize part variety and standardize components.[2] The fuselage demonstrated considerable resilience and could endure substantial damage.[3]

The Whitley’s wing featured a broad rectangular planform, earning it the nickname "the flying barn door".[3] Like the fuselage, its wings were constructed in three segments around a large box spar, with leading and trailing edges secured at each rib location along this spar.[13] The forward wing surfaces consisted of flush-riveted smooth metal sheeting without structural stress; meanwhile, approximately two-thirds aft of the box spar to the trailing edge—including ailerons and split flaps—were covered in fabric.[9][13] The split flaps were built from duralumin internal structures spanning between ailerons and fuselage, adjustable between 15–20 degrees during takeoff and up to 60 degrees for landing operations.[3] Tailplanes shared similar construction methods as wings; fins were supported by metal struts attached to the fuselage, while elevators and rudders incorporated servo-balanced trim tabs for control effectiveness.[3]

Military service

Whitley Mk.V production, 1941

The Whitley Mk I was introduced into squadron use with No. 10 Squadron of the RAF on 9 March 1937, replacing their Handley Page Heyford biplanes.[14] The Whitley Mk II entered squadron operations with No. 58 Squadron in January 1938, followed by the Whitley Mk III joining No. 51 Squadron in August of the same year.[14] In May 1939, No. 10 Squadron received the Whitley Mk IV, and by August 1939, the Whitley Mk IVA was introduced to No. 78 Squadron.[14] When the Second World War commenced, seven squadrons were operational with most flying Whitley III or IV variants; meanwhile, the Whitley V had only just been deployed, with a total of 196 Whitleys in RAF service.[15][14][16]

At war’s outset, 4 Group, equipped with Whitleys, represented the world’s sole trained night bomber force.[14] Alongside the Handley Page Hampden and Vickers Wellington, the Whitley played a central role in early combat operations and participated in the first night of hostilities by dropping propaganda leaflets over Germany.[17] This leaflet mission marked the first penetration by an aircraft of RAF Bomber Command into German territory.[14] Subsequent propaganda flights extended as far as Berlin, Prague, and Warsaw.[18] On the night of 19/20 March 1940, in cooperation with Hampdens, Whitleys executed the initial bombing raid on German soil targeting the Hörnum seaplane base on Sylt Island.[1][19] After this attack, Whitleys regularly patrolled around the Frisian Islands to disrupt shipping and seaplane operations.[14]

Merlin-powered prototype K7208 (converted Whitley Mk I), circa 1938

Unlike the Hampden and Wellington—which were designed under Specification B.9/32 for daylight bombing missions—the Whitley was specifically developed for nocturnal operations and thus avoided the heavy losses suffered by these aircraft during daytime raids on German shipping.[2] Despite being the oldest bomber among these three types and considered outdated at war’s start, production exceeded 1,000 units before an adequate successor was introduced. A notable issue with the radar-equipped Mk VII variant was its inability to maintain altitude on a single engine due to drag from its external aerials. Throughout its service with Bomber Command, Whitleys completed 8,996 sorties, delivering 9,845 tons (8,931 tonnes) of bombs while losing 269 aircraft in combat.[20]

On the night of 11/12 June 1940, during Operation Haddock, Whitleys undertook the first RAF bombing mission against Italy shortly after Italy declared war; they targeted Turin and Genoa after refueling in the Channel Islands.[17][19] Numerous prominent RAF bomber pilots from WWII—including Don Bennett, James Brian Tait, and Leonard Cheshire—flew Whitleys at some stage during their careers.[21]

During the night of 10/11 February 1941, six Whitley V aircraft from 51 Squadron led by Tait participated in Operation Colossus, marking Britain’s first airborne military operation by deploying paratroopers to sabotage the Tragino Aqueduct in southern Italy. Paratroopers often found exiting through the floor chute challenging; improper timing could result in being dragged out prematurely by airflow causing facial injuries known colloquially as a "Whitley kiss."Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

The last operational bombing mission by a squadron equipped solely with Whitleys occurred on the night of 29/30 April 1942 when No. 58 Squadron attacked Belgium’s Port of Ostend.[22] By late 1942, frontline bomber squadrons had phased out the Whitley, which was reassigned to secondary roles such as supply drops and agent insertions within Special Duties squadrons (138 and 161) until December that year. It also served as a transport for personnel and cargo, paratroop carrier, and glider tug.[20][23] In its role as a standard paratroop transport selected in 1940, modifications frequently involved adapting the ventral turret opening for troop egress.[20] Additionally, No. 100 Group RAF employed Whitleys for radar and electronic countermeasure missions. In February 1942, they transported paratroopers involved in Operation Biting—the Bruneval raid—which successfully seized German radar components from a French coastal installation.[20]

The long-range Coastal Command Mk VII variants were among the final Whitleys retained in frontline duty until early 1943.[20] The first confirmed U-boat kill credited to a Whitley Mk VII was U-751 on 17 July 1942; this victory was shared with an Avro Lancaster heavy bomber.[24][25] After evaluation in 1942, the Fleet Air Arm operated several modified ex-RAF Mk VIIs from 1944 to 1946 to train crews in Merlin engine management and fuel transfer techniques.[1]

Civilian service

During April and May 1942, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) operated a fleet of 15 Whitley Mk V aircraft that had been converted for cargo use. This modification entailed removing all weaponry, smoothing over the turret recesses, installing extra fuel tanks within the bomb bay, adapting the fuselage interior for freight storage, and fitting at least one plane with a larger cargo door. These aircraft were primarily deployed on nocturnal supply missions between Gibraltar and Malta, a journey lasting approximately seven hours and often concluding with landings amid enemy air raids on Malta.[26] Additionally, Whitley freighters undertook the perilous route connecting RAF Leuchars, Scotland, to Stockholm, Sweden. Despite their utility, the Whitleys were inefficient in fuel consumption relative to their payload capacity and had other drawbacks that limited their suitability. Consequently, by August 1942, they were replaced by the Lockheed Hudson, and the remaining 14 aircraft were returned to RAF service.[26]

Variants

Whitley prototype, circa 1936
Ground crew loading 250lb bombs into a Whitley Mk V of No. 502 Squadron, 1940

Following the initial two prototypes (K4586 and K4587), at the war’s outset the RAF operated 207 Whitleys spanning Mk I through Mk IV variants, with subsequent improvements leading to these models:

Mk I
A.W. Type 188. Equipped with 795 hp (593 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Tiger IX air-cooled radial engines, featuring four degrees of dihedral on each outer wing panel; earlier units were retrofitted accordingly. A total of 34 units were produced.[7]
Mk II
A.W. Type 197 (including some Type 220). Powered by 920 hp (690 kW) two-speed supercharged Tiger VIII engines; production reached 46 aircraft.[7]
Mk III
A.W. Type 205. Retained Tiger VIII powerplants and introduced a hydraulically operated retractable "dustbin" ventral turret behind the wing root armed with two .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns, enhanced bomb bay doors, and capability to carry larger ordnance; 80 built.[7]
Mk IV
A.W. Type 209. Featured 1,030 hp (770 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin IV inline liquid-cooled engines, increased fuel capacity, an extended bomb-aimer’s canopy, replaced manually operated tail and ventral turrets with a single powered Nash & Thompson tail turret mounting four .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning machine guns; production began in 1938 with 33 units completed.[12]
Mk IVA
A.W. Type 210. A variant of the Mk IV fitted with 1,145 hp (854 kW) Merlin X engines installed on the final production line aircraft; seven were constructed.[12]
Mk V
A.W. Type 207. The principal wartime model derived from Mk IV featuring straight-edged vertical stabilizers, leading-edge de-icing equipment, and an extended tail fuselage aft by 15 in (381 mm) to enhance the tail gunner’s firing range.[1] First flight occurred in December 1938; production ended in June 1943 after building 1,466 units.[27]
Mk VI
A proposed version powered by Pratt & Whitney G.R.1830 Twin Wasp engines as a contingency against Merlin engine shortages; none were manufactured.[27]
Mk VII
A.W. Type 217. Developed for Coastal Command, this model accommodated a sixth crew member and was capable of extended-range operations (2,300 mi/3,700 km versus early versions’ 1,250 mi (2,010 km)[1]), achieved through additional fuel tanks installed in both bomb bay and fuselage. It was equipped with ASV Mk. II radar for anti-shipping missions featuring four 'stickleback' dorsal radar masts plus supplementary antennae; production totaled 146 aircraft.[28] Due to increased weight, this variant could not sustain altitude on a single engine alone.

Operators

The port-side fuselage of Whitley Mk V P5005 'DY-N' from No. 102 Squadron showing damage sustained after completing a bombing mission over the Ruhr on the night of 12/13 November 1940, having been struck by German flak
A Whitley being loaded with Propaganda leaflets, circa 1940
Personnel from the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) engaged in cleaning and painting a Whitley Mk V assigned to No. 51 Squadron, around 1942

Military operators

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Civil operators

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Remaining aircraft

File:Whitley memorial.JPG
Whitley Squadron War Memorial, Coventry, 2010

None of the 1,814 Whitley bombers originally built have survived intact. Efforts by The Whitley Project aim to reconstruct one using recovered fragments, while a fuselage portion is exhibited at the Midland Air Museum (MAM), located next to the airfield where the Whitley first took flight.[29]

Specifications (Whitley Mk V)

Technical illustration of the Merlin-powered Whitley Mk.V, including an inset profile of the Tiger-powered Mk III featuring a retractable "dustbin" turret.
Rear fuselage segment preserved at the Midland Air Museum, photographed in 2006

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See also

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Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Crosby2007pp48-49
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Moyes 1967, p. 3.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 Moyes 1967, p. 4.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named gunston
  5. ↑
  6. ↑
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Moyes 1967, p. 5.
  8. ↑ Roberts 1986, p. 8.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named flight 402
  10. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 4–5.
  11. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 5–6.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Moyes 1967, p. 6.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Moyes 1967, pp. 3–4.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Moyes 1967, p. 11.
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Mondey1994p18
  16. ↑ Thetford 1957, p. 27.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Willingp22
  18. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 11–12.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Moyes 1967, p. 12.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Moyes1976p327
  21. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 12–13.
  22. ↑ Moyes 1967, p. 13.
  23. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 13–14.
  24. ↑ U-206. uboat.net. Retrieved: August 8, 2010.
  25. ↑ U-751. uboat.net. Retrieved: August 8, 2010.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Jackson 1
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Moyes 1967, p. 7.
  28. ↑ Moyes 1967, pp. 7, 10.
  29. ↑ Roberts 1978, pp. 58–59.

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Bibliography

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  • Green, William; Swanborough, Gordon (February–May 1979). "Armstrong Whitworth's Willing Whitley". Air Enthusiast. No. 9. Bromley, Kent, UK. pp. 10–25.
  • Green, William; Swanborough, Gordon (1979). WW2 Aircraft Fact Files: RAF Bombers, Part 1. London: Macdonald and Jane's. ISBN 0-354-01230-4.
  • Gunston, Bill (1995). Classic World War II Aircraft Cutaways. Botley, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-526-8.
  • Jackson, A.J. (1973). British Civil Aircraft since 1919 (Volume 1). London: Putnam & Company Ltd. ISBN 0-370-10006-9.
  • Lawrence, Joseph (1945). The Observer's Book Of Airplanes. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co.
  • Mason, Francis K. (1994). The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books. ISBN 0-85177-861-5.
  • Mondey, David (1994). The Hamlyn Concise Guide to British Aircraft of World War II. London: Chancellor Press. ISBN 1-85152-668-4.
  • Moyes, Philip J. R. (1967). The Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications.
  • Moyes, Philip J. R. (1976) [1964]. Bomber Squadrons of the RAF and Their Aircraft. London: Macdonald and Jane's. ISBN 0-354-01027-1.
  • Roberts, N. (1978). Armstrong Whitworth Whitley. Aircraft Crash Log. Leeds: N. Roberts.
  • Roberts, R. N. (1986). The Whitley File. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians). ISBN 0-85130-127-4.
  • Swanborough, Gordon (1997). British Aircraft at War, 1939–1945. East Sussex, UK: HPC Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-9531421-0-8.
  • Thetford, Owen (1957). Aircraft of the Royal Air Force, 1918–57. London, UK: Putnam & Company Ltd.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
  • Wixey, Ken ("1999"). "Warpaint Series No. 21". "Denbigh East, Bletchley, UK": "Hall Park Books". OCLC "65202527". {{cite book}}: Check |oclc= value (help); Check date values in: |year= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Text ""Armstrong Whitworth Whitley"" ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)

External links

Related profiles

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