Avro Vulcan
| Company type | Aircraft |
|---|---|
| Industry | Aerospace |
| Predecessor | Avro 707 (test aircraft) |
| Founded | April 1947 (design work started) |
| Founder | A.V. Roe and Company (Avro) |
| Headquarters | United Kingdom |
| Products | Strategic bomber aircraft |
Overview
The Avro Vulcan, later known as the Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963 onward, is a jet-powered, tailless delta-wing strategic bomber that served with the Royal Air Force (RAF) between 1956 and 1984. Developed by A.V. Roe and Company (Avro) to meet Specification B.35/46 issued by the Air Ministry, the Vulcan was one of three aircraft produced under the V bomber program. Among these, it stood out as the most advanced technically, though it carried higher development risks. To validate the delta-wing concept, several smaller-scale prototypes called Avro 707s were constructed.
The initial Vulcan B.1 variant entered RAF service in 1956, followed by deliveries of the upgraded Vulcan B.2 beginning in 1960. Enhancements in the B.2 included more powerful engines, a larger wing span, an improved electrical system, and advanced electronic countermeasures; many units were also modified to carry the Blue Steel missile. As a core component of the V-force, the Vulcan formed the backbone of Britain's airborne nuclear deterrent throughout much of the Cold War. While primarily equipped for nuclear missions, it was also capable of conventional bombing operations, notably demonstrated during Operation Black Buck in the 1982 Falklands War against Argentina.
Initially, the Vulcan lacked defensive armaments and depended on its ability to fly at high speeds and altitudes to avoid enemy interception. From around 1960 onward, electronic countermeasures were introduced on both B.1 (designated B.1A) and B.2 models. In response to evolving threats during the mid-1960s, tactics shifted to low-level flight profiles. During the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were converted for maritime radar reconnaissance duties and redesignated as B.2 (MRR). Toward the end of their operational life, six aircraft were transformed into K.2 tankers for aerial refuelling roles.
Following their retirement from active RAF service, one Vulcan B.2 aircraft—XH558, dubbed The Spirit of Great Britain—was restored for participation in airshows and display flights. Additionally, two other B.2s—XL426 and XM655—have been maintained in taxiable condition for ground demonstrations. XH558 completed its final flight in October 2015 and continues to be preserved for taxi runs. Another example, XM612, is exhibited at the Norwich Aviation Museum.
Origins
The development of the Vulcan, along with the other V bombers, is closely connected to Britain's initial atomic weapons program and its strategic nuclear deterrence policies. The British atomic bomb initiative commenced with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001, issued in August 1946. This anticipated a government decision, expected in January 1947, to authorize research and development on nuclear arms, despite the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) restricting the transfer of atomic knowledge—even to allied nations involved in the Manhattan Project. OR.1001 specified a weapon no longer than 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m), with a diameter not exceeding 5 ft (1.5 m), and a weight limit of 10,000 lb (4,500 kg). The bomb was required to be deployable from altitudes ranging between 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m).
In January 1947, the Ministry of Supply issued Specification B.35/46 to British aircraft manufacturers, aimed at fulfilling Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229. This called for a medium-range land-based bomber capable of delivering a single 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to targets up to 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) distant from any global base. The aircraft was expected to cruise at approximately 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes between 35,000 and 50,000 ft (11,000 and 15,000 m), with a maximum takeoff weight not exceeding 100,000 lb (45,000 kg). Alternatively, it could carry a conventional bomb payload of up to 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). A related requirement, OR.230, called for a "long-range bomber" with a radius of action around 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km) and a maximum fully loaded weight of 200,000 lb (91,000 kg), though this was deemed overly demanding. Six firms submitted proposals meeting this specification, including Avro.
Avro began design work promptly after receiving Specification B.35/46 by April 1947, under the leadership of technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies. The project was designated Avro 698. The design team quickly recognized that conventional aircraft configurations would not meet the stringent requirements. At that time, there was limited useful data on high-speed flight from either the Royal Aircraft Establishment or American sources. Avro engineers were aware of Alexander Lippisch’s delta-wing fighter designs and considered applying the delta wing concept for their bomber. They calculated that a traditional aircraft with a swept wing angled at 45° would double the weight beyond acceptable limits. Understanding that swept wings improved longitudinal stability, they eliminated the tail assembly (empennage) and its supporting fuselage structure, evolving the design into a swept-back flying wing featuring only a minimal forward fuselage and vertical stabilizers located at each wingtip. This approach reduced estimated weight to roughly 50% above the target; further refinement into a delta shape was achieved by decreasing wingspan while maintaining wing area by filling in between wingtips, enabling compliance with specification demands. Although Lippisch is often credited as the delta wing pioneer, Chadwick’s team arrived at their design through independent engineering logic. The initial design included four large turbojet engines arranged in pairs stacked vertically within the wings near the centerline, flanked by two bomb bays.
Following Chadwick’s death in August 1947 during an accident involving the Avro Tudor 2 prototype, Sir William Farren assumed leadership. Subsequent reductions in wing thickness rendered it impossible to accommodate stacked engines and split bomb bays as originally planned; consequently, engines were repositioned side-by-side in pairs on either side of a single bomb bay, causing some enlargement of the fuselage. The twin wingtip fins were replaced by one central fin on the aircraft’s vertical axis. In November 1947, rival manufacturer Handley Page received a prototype contract for their crescent-winged HP.80 under Specification B.35/46. Despite being regarded as the superior design choice, awarding Avro’s contract was delayed pending confirmation of its technical viability. Eventually, instructions were given in January 1948 to proceed with constructing two Avro 698 prototypes.
As a contingency against potential failure of these advanced designs, Short Brothers were awarded a contract to develop the SA.4 Sperrin prototype under less stringent Specification B.14/46; however, this aircraft was ultimately deemed unnecessary. In April 1948, Vickers-Armstrongs also received authorization to begin work on their Type 660 design—the Vickers Valiant—which did not fully meet Specification B.35/46 but featured a more conventional layout and could enter service sooner as the Valiant bomber.
Avro 707 and Avro 710
Since Avro lacked prior flight data on delta wing configurations, the company developed two smaller test aircraft derived from the 698 design: the one-third scale model 707 to evaluate low-speed characteristics and the one-half scale model 710 intended for high-speed trials. Two units of each were commissioned. However, development of the 710 was halted due to time constraints, leading to the creation of a high-speed variant of the 707, designated 707A. The initial 707, serial VX784, took to the skies in September 1949 but suffered a fatal crash later that month, resulting in the death of Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE, chief test pilot of the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment. The second low-speed 707, VX790—constructed using the incomplete nose section from the 707A which included an ejection seat—was redesignated as 707B and first flew in September 1950 under Avro test pilot Wing Commander Roland "Roly" Falk. Subsequently, the high-speed 707A, WD280, made its maiden flight in July 1951.
Although delays in the 707 programme limited its impact on the fundamental design of the 698, insights gained prompted an extension of the nosewheel length to achieve an optimal take-off ground attitude of 3.5°. Both the 707B and 707A validated the delta wing concept and bolstered confidence in its aerodynamic layout. Additional aircraft included a second 707A (WZ736) and a two-seat variant, the 707C (WZ744); however, these did not contribute directly to the development of the 698.
First prototype VX770 and name
Wind tunnel experiments conducted at RAE Farnborough had a more substantial influence than the Avro 707 on shaping the design of the 698. These tests led to a wing redesign featuring a cranked and drooped leading edge combined with vortex generators to mitigate compressibility drag that could limit maximum velocity. This modification produced what became known as the "phase 2" wing, initially tested on Avro 707A WD480. However, this upgrade came too late to be applied to either of the two prototype 698s or to the first three B.1 production models prior to their inaugural flights; these B.1s were subsequently retrofitted with the improved wing.
The prototype 698, VX770, painted in glossy white and equipped with a pure delta wing, completed its first flight on 30 August 1952 with Roly Falk at the controls flying solo. Powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines delivering 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust each—since its intended Bristol Olympus engines were unavailable—the aircraft featured fuselage fuel tanks but lacked wing tanks; therefore, additional temporary fuel capacity was installed within its bomb bay. VX770 was showcased at the following month's SBAC Farnborough Air Show where Falk executed an almost vertical bank maneuver.
Following this public debut, speculation arose regarding a suitable name for the Avro 698. Avro advocated naming it Ottawa in recognition of their ties with Avro Canada, aligning with RAF bomber naming traditions that favored Commonwealth inland towns or industrial centers. The weekly publication Flight proposed Albion after dismissing alternatives such as Avenger, Apollo, and Assegai. Ultimately, influenced by preferences for a V-class bomber series from senior RAF leadership, the Air Council officially designated the aircraft Vulcan, referencing the Roman deity associated with fire and destruction.
In January 1953, VX770 was temporarily grounded to receive modifications including wing fuel tanks and replacement engines—Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire units rated at 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust—along with other system upgrades; it resumed flying in July that year.
Beginning in 1957, VX770 served as a flying testbed for Rolls-Royce Conway by-pass turbofan engines until it was lost during a flying display at RAF Syerston in September 1958.
Second prototype VX777
The second prototype, designated VX777, took to the skies for the first time on 3 September 1953. Closer in design to the production variants, it was extended in length to fit a longer nose landing gear strut, which enhanced the wing's angle of attack and thus reduced the takeoff distance. This model incorporated a bomb-aiming blister beneath the cockpit and was powered by Bristol Olympus 100 engines delivering 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) of thrust. Following Falk's recommendation, the traditional control wheel was replaced with a fighter-style control stick. Similar to VX770, VX777 retained the original wing design featuring straight leading edges. At the 1953 Farnborough Air Show, VX777 flew alongside the initial prototype VX770 and four Avro 707s in formation. In July 1954, during testing at Farnborough, VX777 suffered significant damage due to a hard landing but was subsequently repaired and upgraded with Olympus 101 engines producing 11,000 lbf (49 kN) of thrust before continuing trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
Testing and type certification
During evaluation of VX777’s performance at high speeds and altitudes at the A&AEE, pilots encountered mild buffeting and other unfavorable flight behaviors near the aircraft’s maximum Mach number, including a dangerous tendency to enter an uncontrollable dive known as Mach tuck. Such characteristics were deemed unsuitable for an unarmed bomber role. The installation of the phase 2 wing eliminated the buffeting issue, while an automatic Mach trimmer was introduced to counteract the high-speed dive by applying up-elevator input as velocity approached critical levels. This up-elevator force exceeded that required to resist the dive, resulting in a need for pilots to push forward on the control column rather than pull back to maintain level flight as speed increased. This artificial pitch-up effect made handling characteristics more consistent with other aircraft at high speed.[1]
The first production B.1 model[N 1] XA889 conducted its maiden flight in February 1955 featuring the original wing[3] and commenced flight trials in June of that year. In September 1955, Falk piloted the second production B.1 XA890 (which had remained stationed at Woodford for radio trials with the Ministry of Supply’s Air Fleet) and impressed spectators at the Farnborough Air Show by performing a barrel roll[4] during his second flypast near the SBAC president’s pavilion. After two days of flying demonstrations, he was summoned by military and civil aviation authorities and instructed to cease this “hazardous” manoeuvre.[4] Equipped with a phase 2 wing by this time, XA889 was delivered to A&AEE in March 1956 for certification testing and received its initial Certificate of Airworthiness one month later.[5]
(In 1956, VX777 underwent modifications incorporating an even larger phase 2(C) wing and Olympus 104 engines; it then served as the aerodynamic testbed for the Vulcan B.2.)Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
Vulcan B.1 and B.1A
The initial batch of 15 production B.1 models was equipped with the Olympus 101 engines. A significant number of these early units, often finished in bare metal, remained under the ownership of the Ministry of Supply for experimental and development use. Those that joined RAF service were assigned to No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), with the first delivery occurring in July 1956.[6] Subsequent aircraft, painted in anti-flash white and powered by the Olympus 102 engines delivering 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust, started entering squadron service from July 1957.[7] These Olympus 102 engines were later upgraded during overhaul to the Olympus 104 standard, which provided a thrust rating of 13,500 lbf (60 kN).[8]
Although converting B.1s into B.2s was evaluated, it was ultimately deemed too costly. To prolong the operational life of the B.1, 28 surviving aircraft equipped with Olympus 102/104 engines underwent upgrades by Armstrong Whitworth between 1959 and 1963 to meet the B.1A specification. This included additions such as electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems,[9] in-flight refuelling reception capabilities,[10] and UHF radio communications.[11] However, these B.1A variants were not structurally reinforced for low-level missions and were all retired by 1968.[12]
Vulcan B.2
As early as 1952, Bristol Aero Engines had initiated development of the BOl.6 (Olympus 6), designed to produce 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust,[13] but integrating this engine into the B.1 would have reintroduced aerodynamic buffet issues necessitating wing redesign.[14]
The decision to develop the Vulcan B.2 series was finalized in May 1956 under the guidance of Avro's chief designer Roy Ewans. The first B.2 was projected to be approximately the 45th aircraft out of the initial order of 99.[15] This variant was intended to operate at higher altitudes over targets and offered enhanced operational versatility through in-flight refuelling capabilities supported by tanker aircraft.[16] To counter increasingly advanced Soviet air defences, ECM suites were installed alongside plans for integration with the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile, which was under development at that time.[17] To facilitate these enhancements, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was modified with a larger and thinner phase-2C wing design, improved flight control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines; it first flew in this form in August 1957.[18] Several Vulcan B.1 airframes served as platforms for testing B.2 features: XA891 tested the BOl.6 (later Olympus 200), XA893 trialed a new AC electrical system, XA895 evaluated ECM including tail cone jammers and a tail warning radar, while XA903 was used for Blue Steel missile development.[19]
The first production B.2 and the forty-sixth overall Vulcan, XH533, took to the skies in September 1958 powered by Olympus 200 engines—six months before delivery of the last B.1 (XH532) in March 1959.[20] The second B.2 model (XH534) flew in January of the following year; equipped with production Olympus 201 engines rated at 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust, it featured an in-flight refuelling probe and a bulged ECM tail cone typical of production aircraft standards. Some early B.2s initially lacked these probes and ECM tail cones but were retrofitted subsequently. The first ten B.2s retained narrow engine air intakes reminiscent of their B.1 lineage; anticipating more powerful engines, intake ducts were deepened starting with the eleventh aircraft (XH557). Many early examples were allocated for testing purposes; notably XH558—the twelfth B.2—was delivered to RAF service in July 1960 and coincidentally became the last Vulcan retired from RAF service in 1992.[21]
The twenty-sixth B.2 produced (XL317), ordered as part of a February 1956 production batch, was the first Vulcan aside from prototypes capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile; a total of thirty-three aircraft were delivered with this capability.[22] Following cancellation of Blue Steel Mk.2 in favor of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile in December 1959,[23] modifications were made to accommodate Skybolt launchers beneath each wing; although Skybolt itself was cancelled in November1962,[24] many airframes had already been built or retrofitted with "Skybolt" fairings.[25] Later deliveries featured Olympus301 engines producing 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust; two earlier aircraft (XH557 and XJ784) were re-engined for trials purposes while seven others underwent conversion around1963.[26]
The final B.2 model XM657 entered service in1965 and remained operational until1984. Throughout its career, continuous upgrades enhanced its capabilities including rapid engine start systems, fuel tanks within bomb bays, wing reinforcements extending fatigue life for low-level flying introduced mid-1960s tactics, advanced navigation systems incorporating terrain-following radar, standardization on carrying WE.177 weapons, and improved ECM suites.[27] Nine units were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance roles,[28] while six served as airborne tankers.[29] Avro demonstrated an upgraded bomb rack capable of holding thirty one-thousand-pound bombs instead of twenty-one; however this enhancement was never officially adopted.[30] During the Falklands conflict in1982, an updated Vulcan B.2 executed a bombing mission against Port Stanley Airport, covering approximately4,000 miles (6,437 km).[31]
Proposed Developments and Abandoned Projects
- Avro Type 718
In 1951, Avro proposed the Type 718, a delta-wing military transport derived from the Type 698 design, intended to accommodate 80 soldiers or 110 passengers. This aircraft was planned to be powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines.[32]
- Avro Atlantic
The Type 722 Atlantic, introduced in 1952 and publicly announced in June 1953, was envisioned as a delta-wing airliner capable of carrying 120 passengers, also based on the Type 698 platform.[32]
- Avro Type 732
The Avro 732, proposed in 1956, aimed to be a supersonic evolution of the Vulcan bomber, equipped with eight de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. Unlike the earlier Avro 721 low-altitude bomber concept from 1952 or the Avro 730—a supersonic canard-configured stainless steel bomber developed in 1954 and cancelled in 1957 prior to prototype completion—the Type 732 retained clear design elements from the Vulcan lineage.[32]
- Vulcan Phase 6 (Vulcan B.3)
In 1960, the Air Staff commissioned Avro to conduct a study for a patrol missile carrier capable of deploying up to six Skybolt missiles with a mission endurance of twelve hours. Avro’s May 1960 proposal, designated Phase 6 Vulcan or Vulcan B.3, featured an expanded wing span of 121 ft (37 m), enhanced fuel storage including additional tanks housed within a dorsal spine, a redesigned main landing gear supporting a maximum takeoff weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg), and Olympus 301 engines with afterburners delivering 30,000 lbf (130 kN) thrust. An updated October 1960 submission incorporated a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) fuselage extension forward of the cockpit to accommodate six crew members seated on ejection seats facing forward—including a relief pilot—and proposed aft-fan variants of the Olympus 301 engine.[33]
- Fighter-support Vulcan
Following the cancellation of Skybolt and in response to advancing Soviet air defenses, Avro suggested modifying the Vulcan to carry three Folland Gnat fighters mounted beneath its wings. These Gnats were intended to be deployed within hostile airspace to provide fighter escort protection. Upon mission completion, they were expected either to land safely within allied territory or return to the Vulcan for refueling via a specially installed flight refueling drogue system.[34][35]
Export proposals
Although several nations showed interest in acquiring Vulcans, no international sales occurred, similar to the other V-bomber models.
- Australia
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) identified as early as 1954 that the English Electric Canberra was approaching obsolescence. Various potential successors, including the Boeing B-47E, Handley-Page Victor, and Vulcan, were evaluated.
By 1962, political demands for a Canberra substitute intensified, coinciding with the emergence of nimble, supersonic bombers and strategic strike aircraft like the North American A-5 Vigilante, BAC TSR-2, and General Dynamics F-111. If Australia had placed an early order for the TSR-2, several V-bombers—including Vulcans—would have been temporarily provided for RAAF use; however, the F-111C was ultimately selected. (Following the TSR-2 cancellation, the UK government nearly replicated this choice by considering the comparable F-111K.)
- Argentina
During the early 1980s, Argentina approached Britain to negotiate the purchase of multiple Vulcans. In September 1981, a formal request was submitted seeking prompt delivery of a 'suitable aircraft'. Although British ministers hesitated, they consented to export a single unit but made clear that approval for additional sales was not granted. A January 1982 communication from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to the Ministry of Defence expressed skepticism about further sales without confirming Argentina's genuine interest: "On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands." Less than three months later, following Argentina’s invasion of the Falkland Islands, a British embargo swiftly prohibited any military equipment sales.
Design
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Overview
Although the airframe featured a distinctive and unconventional design, its construction followed conventional principles. Apart from the most heavily stressed components, the entire framework was produced using standard light alloy grades. The airframe was divided into several principal sections: the centre section—a rectangular box housing the bomb bay and engine compartments, framed by the front and rear spars and wing transport joints; the intakes along with the central fuselage; the forward fuselage containing the pressurized cabin; the nose; the outer wing panels; leading edges; trailing edges of the wings and rear fuselage; and a single swept tail fin with one rudder positioned on its trailing edge.
Within the pressurized cabin, accommodation was provided for a five-person crew arranged on two levels. The pilot and co-pilot occupied Martin-Baker 3K (3KS on B.2 models) ejection seats on the upper tier, while on the lower level, the navigator radar, navigator plotter, and air electronics officer (AEO) faced rearwards and exited through the entrance door. Initially, the B35/46 specification called for a jettisonable crew compartment, but this feature was later removed by amendment. The escape arrangements for the rear crew often sparked debate, notably when a practical retrofit proposal was declined. A basic sixth seat located ahead of the navigator radar was provided for an extra crew member; in B.2 variants, a seventh seat was added opposite this sixth position and ahead of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer's station could be equipped with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight, while in numerous B.2 aircraft, this area housed a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera used to evaluate simulated low-level bombing exercises.
Fuel storage consisted of 14 bag tanks: four positioned in the centre fuselage above and behind the nosewheel bay, with five tanks installed in each outer wing. These tanks were arranged into four groups of nearly equal volume, each typically supplying its corresponding engine, though cross-feed capability existed. An automatic system using electric timers regulated booster pumps to maintain the aircraft's centre of gravity. Additionally, B.2 models could carry one or two supplementary fuel tanks within the bomb bay.
Although designed well before considerations such as low radar cross-section or other stealth attributes emerged, a 1957 RAE technical report observed that among all aircraft examined to date, the Vulcan presented by far the simplest radar-reflective profile due to its shape; typically only one or two elements contributed significantly to its radar echo at any given angle, unlike most other aircraft which had three or more contributors. Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith highlighted that "Because of its all-wing form, small vertical fin, and buried engines, at certain angles [the Avro Vulcan] was nearly invisible to radar." Radar system analysts Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan also emphasized that the Vulcan’s configuration reduced radar returns. Aviation author Doug Richardson acknowledged that while the Vulcan was challenging to detect on radar, he doubted this offered substantial military benefit. Conversely, electronic warfare expert and former Vulcan AEO Dr Alfred Price asserted that "the Vulcan [...] possessed a large radar signature."
Colour schemes
The initial two Vulcan prototypes were coated in a glossy white finish. Early production Vulcan B.1 models emerged from the factory with a natural metal exterior; the radome’s front portion was painted black, while the rear section was silver. Operational Vulcan B.1 aircraft featured an anti-flash white coating accompanied by RAF "type D" roundels. The frontline Vulcan B.1A and B.2 variants displayed a similar paint scheme but incorporated pale roundels.
During the mid-1960s, following the shift to low-level attack tactics, B.1As and B.2s were repainted with a glossy disruptive camouflage pattern of sea grey medium and dark green on upper surfaces, white undersides, and retained the "type D" roundels. (The last 13 Vulcan B.2s, starting from XM645, were delivered from the factory in this scheme.) In the 1970s, Vulcan B.2s adopted a comparable pattern but with matte camouflage, light aircraft grey undersides, and low-visibility roundels. The B.2(MRR) models used a similar glossy finish and eliminated the black paint on the radome’s front half. Beginning in 1979, ten Vulcans were repainted with full wrap-around camouflage combining dark sea grey and dark green because during Red Flag exercises in the United States, defending SAM units discovered that the previously grey-painted undersides became highly conspicuous against terrain when viewed at steep bank angles.
Avionics
The original radio equipment on the Vulcan B.1 comprised two 10-channel VHF transceivers (TR-1985/TR-1986) along with an STR-18 24-channel HF transmitter-receiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A added a UHF transceiver (ARC-52). The initial radio fit for the B.2 closely mirrored that of the B.1A but was eventually equipped with an ARC-52, a combined V/UHF transmitter-receiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband modulation HF transmitter-receiver (Collins 618T).
Navigation and bombing systems incorporated an H2S Mk9 radar paired with a navigation bombing computer Mk1. The Mark 2 variant featured an upgraded navigation bombing computer Mk2, which enabled operations up to 60,000 ft altitude alongside a modified synchro system; however, this raised the minimum operational height to 17,200 ft. When transitioning to low-altitude missions, aircraft were retrofitted with the ballistic computing capabilities of the Mk1 system to restore operational altitude between 7,200 ft and 50,000 ft.
Additional navigational aids included a Marconi radio compass (ADF), GEE Mk3, Green Satin Doppler radar for calculating groundspeed and drift angle, as well as radio and radar altimeters plus an instrument landing system. In 1964, TACAN replaced GEE in both B.1A and B.2 models. Around 1969, the Decca Doppler 72 substituted Green Satin on the B.2. A ground position indicator continuously displayed aircraft location.
Vulcan B.2s were later equipped with a free-running dual-gyroscopic heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2 derived from the inertial platform used in the Blue Steel missile system previously integrated when carrying that missile. This HRS provided navigators with heading units allowing fine adjustments through autopilot increments as small as 0.1 degrees. The B.2 (MRR) variant also incorporated the LORAN C navigation system.
The initial electronic countermeasures (ECM) suite for both B.1A and B.2 included one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive warning receiver equipped with four antennas; a Red Steer tail warning radar; and chaff dispensers for countermeasures protection. Most ECM components were housed within an extended tail cone assembly, complemented by a flat aerial counterpoise plate mounted between the starboard tailpipes. Some Blue Steel-armed B.2 aircraft featured an additional aerial plate between port tailpipes since the lowered Blue Steel fin obstructed signals from the starboard side.
Later upgrades to B.2 ECM systems involved replacing one Red Shrimp jammer with an L band jammer; substituting Green Palm with ARI 18146 X-band jammer; upgrading to Red Steer Mk.2; adding infra-red decoys (flares); and installing ARI 18228 PWR receivers whose aerials created a squared profile atop the vertical fin.
Controls
The aircraft's handling was managed through a fighter-style control stick paired with a rudder bar, both linked to powered flight controls. Each control surface was actuated by a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except the rudder, which utilized two units—one serving as a backup. The system incorporated artificial control feel and automatic stabilization via pitch and yaw dampers, alongside an automatic Mach trimmer.
Flight instrumentation in the B.1 model adhered to conventional standards and featured G4B compasses; Mk.4 artificial horizons; and zero reader flight display instruments. Autopilot functions were provided by a Smiths Mk10 system. In the B.2 variant, these instruments were integrated into the Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), which included two beam compasses, two director-horizons, and an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot. Beginning in 1966, B.2 aircraft were equipped with the ARI 5959 terrain-following radar (TFR) developed by General Dynamics, whose outputs were connected to the director-horizons.
The B.1 featured four inboard elevators and four outboard ailerons, while the B.2 replaced these with eight elevons. The Vulcan was outfitted with six electrically actuated airbrakes with three selectable positions (retracted, medium drag, high drag): four located on the upper center wing section and two on the lower surface. Initially, four lower airbrakes were installed, but prior to entering service, the two outermost lower airbrakes were removed. Additionally, a brake parachute was housed within the tail cone.
Electrical and hydraulic systems
The primary electrical supply for the B.1/B.1A models operated at 112 V DC, generated by four engine-driven starter-generators rated at 22.5 kW each. Backup power came from four 24 V batteries of 40 Ah capacity connected in series to yield 96 V. Secondary electrical networks included 28 V DC; single-phase 115 V AC at 1600 Hz; and three-phase 115 V AC at 400 Hz, all derived through transformers and inverters from the main system. The 28 V DC system had a dedicated 24 V battery for redundancy.
To enhance reliability and efficiency, the B.2’s main electrical architecture transitioned to a three-phase 200 V AC system at 400 Hz powered by four engine-driven constant-speed alternators rated at 40 kVA each. Engine starts were facilitated by air-starters supplied from a ground-based Palouste compressor. For emergency power in case of main AC failure, two primary sources existed: a ram air turbine (RAT) mounted under the port wing producing 17 kVA capable of operating down to altitudes of approximately 20,000 ft; and an airborne auxiliary power unit (AAPP), consisting of a Rover gas turbine driving a 40 kVA alternator installed within the starboard wing, which could be engaged below about 30,000 ft altitude. Secondary power supplies utilized transformer-rectifier units for 28 V DC and rotary frequency converters for single-phase 115 V AC at 1600 Hz.
Switching to an AC-based system marked a significant advancement. Each Power Flying Control Unit (PFCU) incorporated a hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor—an arrangement now known as an electro-hydraulic actuator. Since manual reversion was not possible, total electrical failure would lead to loss of flight control authority. Although standby batteries on the B.1 were intended to provide twenty minutes of operational power, this proved overly optimistic; two aircraft (XA891 and XA908) were lost due to insufficient backup power.
Hydraulic pressure supplied functions such as undercarriage extension and retraction with bogie trim adjustment; nosewheel centering and steering; wheel braking equipped with Maxaret anti-skid systems; bomb bay door operation; and on B.2 models only, lowering of the AAPP air scoop. Three hydraulic pumps powered by engines Nos. 1, 2, and 3 delivered system pressure. An electrically driven hydraulic power pack (EHPP) was available to operate bomb doors and recharge brake accumulators. Emergency undercarriage lowering was supported by a compressed gas system initially using compressed air later replaced by nitrogen.
Engine
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The Rolls-Royce Olympus, initially designated as the "Bristol BE.10 Olympus",[36][N 2] is a two-spool, axial-flow turbojet engine that powered the Vulcan bomber. Each Vulcan housed four engines embedded within its wings, arranged in pairs near the fuselage. The engine's development commenced in 1947, originally intended for the Bristol Aeroplane Company's competing design to the Vulcan.[38]
Since the prototype Vulcan VX770 was ready to fly before the Olympus engines were available, it initially took to the skies powered by Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 engines producing 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust. These were soon replaced by Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.6 engines delivering 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust.[39] Subsequently, VX770 served as a flying test platform for the Rolls-Royce Conway.[40] The second prototype, VX777, first flew equipped with Olympus 100 engines rated at 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust and was later upgraded to Olympus 101 units.[41] When VX777 operated with a Phase 2C (B.2) wing in 1957, it utilized Olympus 102 engines generating 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust.[42]
Initial B.1 models were fitted with Olympus 101 engines, while subsequent deliveries featured Olympus 102 variants. Upon overhaul, all Olympus 102 engines were converted to Olympus 104 specification and uprated to provide 13,500 lbf (60 kN) thrust.[43] The first B.2 flew powered by the second-generation Olympus 200 series,[44] whose design began in 1952.[45] Later B.2 aircraft were equipped with either the enhanced Olympus 201 or the Olympus 301 engines. The Olympus 201 received the designation Olympus 202 when fitted with a rapid air starter.[46] This engine was eventually adapted into a reheated (afterburning) variant for use in the cancelled TSR-2 strike/reconnaissance aircraft and the supersonic passenger transport Concorde.[47]
At approximately ninety percent power output, the Vulcan’s engines produced a distinctive "howl"-like sound[48] caused by the configuration of the air intakes; this unique noise became a highlight at public air displays.[49][50]
Introduction
The Royal Air Force welcomed its inaugural Vulcan B.1, XA897, in September 1956, which promptly embarked on a global circumnavigation. This journey served as a significant display of the aircraft's extensive range and performance, while also fulfilling diplomatic objectives through goodwill visits across multiple countries. Throughout their operational tenure, Vulcans frequently traveled to various nations and remote areas within the Commonwealth, symbolizing support and military assurance. Unfortunately, this initial tour ended tragically when XA897 was lost in a fatal accident upon landing at London Heathrow Airport on 1 October 1956 amid poor weather conditions.
January 1957 saw the delivery of the first two aircraft to 230 OCU, with crew training commencing on 21 February 1957. The first cohort to graduate from the OCU was No. 1 Course on 21 May 1957; these graduates went on to establish the initial flight of No. 83 Squadron. As the earliest operational unit to employ the Vulcan, No. 83 Squadron initially operated aircraft borrowed from the OCU before receiving its own first Vulcan on 11 July 1956. By September that year, multiple Vulcans had been allocated to No. 83 Squadron. The second OCU course similarly formed a flight within No. 83 Squadron, while subsequent trained personnel were instrumental in creating 101 Squadron, the second bomber squadron equipped with Vulcans. The final aircraft from the initial batch of twenty-five was delivered to No. 101 Squadron by the close of 1957.
To extend operational endurance and mission duration, in-flight refuelling capabilities were incorporated starting in 1959; this involved converting several Valiant bombers into tanker aircraft capable of refuelling Vulcans mid-air. However, maintaining continuous airborne patrols proved impractical, and following the retirement of Valiant tankers in 1965, refuelling systems across the Vulcan fleet were largely abandoned.
Vulcans and other V-force bombers frequently deployed to the Far East, notably Singapore, where a dedicated nuclear weapons storage facility was established in 1959. These deployments formed part of the UK’s contribution to SEATO operations and often involved joint exercises aimed at evaluating allied defensive capabilities. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, British plans included stationing three V-bomber squadrons along with forty-eight Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons in the region; however, this deployment was ultimately not executed. Nonetheless, Vulcans conducted training missions in both conventional and nuclear roles within the area. In the early 1970s, two Vulcan squadrons were permanently assigned overseas as part of the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing based at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus. These units were withdrawn by the mid-1970s due to escalating Cypriot intercommunal violence.
Long-range missions were characteristic of Vulcan operations; for instance, in June 1961, one aircraft completed an 18,507 km flight from RAF Scampton to Sydney over approximately twenty hours, supported by three aerial refuellings. During the 1960s and 1970s, Vulcans participated in airshows and static exhibitions across the United States and competed in the Strategic Air Command's Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition at venues such as Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, and former McCoy AFB, Florida. Additionally, Vulcans took part in the extensive Operation Sky Shield exercise in 1961, which tested NORAD’s defenses against potential Soviet air raids; alongside B-47s and B-52s, a limited number of Vulcans simulated Soviet fighter-bomber attacks targeting New York, Chicago, and Washington, D.C., with results remaining classified until 1997. During the 1974 "Giant Voice" exercise, Vulcans successfully evaded interception attempts by USAF fighters.
Nuclear deterrent
The Vulcan was initially armed with Britain's first independent nuclear weapon, the Blue Danube unguided gravity bomb, as a key element of the nation's autonomous nuclear deterrent.[51] Developed prior to the United States' first hydrogen bomb test, the Blue Danube was a low-yield fission device. This arsenal was later supplemented by U.S.-supplied Mk 5 bombs, provided under the Project E initiative, and subsequently by the British tactical nuclear weapon known as Red Beard.[52] Concurrently, the UK pursued its own hydrogen bomb development program; meanwhile, V-bombers were equipped with an Interim Megaton Weapon called Violet Club, which utilized the Blue Danube casing but contained the high-yield pure-fission warhead Green Grass, delivering approximately 400-kiloton-of-TNT (1.7 PJ).[53][N 3] Only five Violet Club bombs were deployed before the Green Grass warhead was integrated into a more advanced weapon system designated as Yellow Sun Mk.1.[53]
The subsequent Yellow Sun Mk 2 incorporated Red Snow, a British-produced variant of the American W28 thermonuclear warhead.[53] This marked the first deployment of a British thermonuclear device and was carried by both Vulcan and Handley Page Victor bombers. Meanwhile, Valiant aircraft continued to operate U.S. nuclear weapons assigned under dual-key arrangements with SACEUR. The Red Beard tactical bombs were stationed in Singapore for use by Vulcan and Victor bombers.[56] Starting in 1963, three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s and two Victor B.2 squadrons were equipped with the rocket-powered Blue Steel stand-off missile armed with a 1.1 Mt (4.6 PJ) yield Red Snow warhead.[57]
From an operational standpoint, RAF Bomber Command collaborated with SAC under the Single Integrated Operational Plan beginning in 1958 to ensure comprehensive targeting of Soviet strategic sites; by late 1959, 108 RAF V-bombers had assigned targets within this framework.[58] From 1962 onward, each RAF bomber squadron maintained at least one aircraft armed with nuclear weapons on continuous Quick Reaction Alert (QRA), ready for immediate deployment.[58] Vulcans on QRA were expected to be airborne within four minutes of receiving an alert—this timeframe corresponded to the anticipated warning interval between detection of a Soviet nuclear strike launch and impact on British soil.[59] The closest Vulcans came to potential nuclear engagement occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 when Bomber Command elevated its readiness to Alert Condition 3; this heightened state was relaxed by early November.[60]
Plans called for Vulcans to replace Blue Steel with the Skybolt missile system, which would be carried two per wing on B.2 models; accordingly, the last batch of twenty-eight B.2s were modified during production to include pylons for Skybolt mounts.[61][62] Additionally, a proposed B.3 variant with an extended wingspan capable of carrying up to six Skybolt missiles was introduced in 1960.[63] However, following President John F. Kennedy’s cancellation of Skybolt in response to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara’s advice—triggering the Skybolt Crisis—the Blue Steel missile remained in service. To bridge capability gaps until Royal Navy Polaris-equipped submarines assumed full deterrent responsibilities, Vulcan bombers adopted a revised mission profile: cruising at high altitude during transit under clear conditions before descending to low altitude near targets to evade defenses and deploying parachute-retarded WE.177B bombs.[64]
Prior to WE.177's laydown mode availability, attack tactics involved a pop-up maneuver allowing Yellow Sun bombs sufficient arming time—initially climbing to approximately 11,000 feet followed by level release flight. To further minimize exposure to surface-to-air missiles during weapon release, climb-and-release procedures were developed: depending on engine type and weapon variant (Mk1 or Mk2), aircraft would ascend at predetermined distances and angles (e.g., for Mk2 Vulcan with Series 301 engines and Yellow Sun: pop-up at roughly 18,450 yards at a climb angle of about 15°, releasing at around 10,500 feet). Designed primarily for high-altitude operations, Vulcans limited training low-level cruise speeds to about 240 knots with bursts up to 350 knots during practice attacks to preserve structural integrity; operational mission speeds targeted approximately 325 knots low level and up to 375 knots at higher altitudes—with clearance for a single dash reaching near 415 knots lasting ten minutes likely corresponding to final attack phases. Anecdotal evidence from pilots noted turbulence challenges at these speeds.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag
Following introduction of British Polaris submarines and withdrawal of Blue Steel from service in 1970, Vulcans transitioned primarily to carrying WE.177B bombs for tactical nuclear strike missions as part of Britain’s NATO commitments in Europe; however, peacetime readiness no longer required aircraft on fifteen-minute alert status.[64] Two squadrons deployed in Cyprus under Near East Air Force command supported Central Treaty Organization strategic strike roles with these weapons. After both WE.177B and Vulcan bomber retirements, platforms such as Blackburn Buccaneer, SEPECAT Jaguar, and Panavia Tornado continued operating WE.177C weapons until their retirement in 1998.[65] Although not directly equivalent replacements for all roles previously performed by Vulcans, the multi-role Tornado interdictor/strike aircraft assumed many of their operational functions.[66]
Conventional role
While the Vulcan was primarily equipped with nuclear weapons during its operational service, it also fulfilled a secondary role involving conventional warfare. In conventional combat scenarios, the Vulcan was capable of carrying as many as 21 bombs weighing 1,000 lb (454 kg) each within its bomb bay.[67] From the 1960s onwards, Vulcan squadrons regularly engaged in conventional training exercises; aircrews were expected to be proficient in both nuclear and conventional bombing operations.[68] The approach to conventional bombing varied depending on anticipated enemy defenses. For targets protected by both enemy aircraft and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), a laydown delivery profile utilizing a retard tail unit (Mk 117) was most probable. Against Soviet SA-2 Guideline missile defenses, the Vulcan could execute a pop-up maneuver to approximately 2,500 feet—positioned below the missile threat yet above the self-damage threshold for free-fall ordnance. If air defense artillery posed the primary threat, an attack altitude near 8,000 feet was preferred to reduce exposure to gunfire while enabling automatic bombing calculations via the Navigation and Bombing System Calc 3.
The Vulcan's sole combat engagements occurred late in its service life during 1982. Deployed in response to Argentinian occupation of the Falkland Islands during the Falklands War, Vulcans conducted long-range bombing raids known as Operation Black Buck. Each sortie required flying roughly 3,889 mi (6,259 km) from Ascension Island to reach Stanley. Air-to-air refueling was provided by Victor tankers, essential for covering this distance; each mission consumed about 1,100,000 imp gal (5,000,000 L) of fuel.[69]
Preparation of the five Vulcans designated for these operations began on 9 April.[70][71] Modifications included alterations to bomb bays, reactivation of previously unused in-flight refueling systems, installation of an updated navigation system based on technology from the Vickers VC10, and upgrades to various onboard electronic systems. Additionally, new wing pylons were installed to accommodate an electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod and Shrike anti-radar missiles at designated hardpoints.
The initial mission took place on 1 May when a single Vulcan (XM607) flew over Port Stanley, releasing bombs targeted primarily at the airfield’s runway, achieving one direct hit that rendered it unusable for fighter operations. This strike was promptly followed by attacks on anti-aircraft installations conducted by British Aerospace Sea Harriers operating from Royal Navy carriers.[72] Two additional sorties targeted radar installations with missile strikes, while two planned missions were ultimately cancelled.[69] These operations set records at that time for the longest-distance bombing raids worldwide.[67][73] The ECM equipment aboard the Vulcans effectively jammed Argentine radar systems; their presence reduced the likelihood of successful enemy fire against other British aircraft operating nearby.[74]
On 3 June 1982, during "Black Buck 6," Vulcan B.2 XM597 from No. 50 Squadron participated in an attack on Argentinian radar positions at Stanley airfield. While attempting refueling for its return leg to Ascension Island, a refueling probe failure left the aircraft critically low on fuel, compelling it to divert to Galeão Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro, located in neutral Brazil. En route, sensitive documents were jettisoned alongside two remaining AGM-45 Shrike missiles—although one failed to launch. Following a distress call and escorted by Brazilian Air Force Northrop F-5 fighters, the Vulcan was granted an emergency landing clearance at Rio with minimal fuel reserves.[75] Both aircraft and crew were held until hostilities concluded nine days later.[76]
Reconnaissance
In November 1973, following the scheduled disbandment of No. 543 Squadron equipped with the Victor SR.2, No. 27 Squadron was re-established at RAF Scampton, adopting the Vulcan to fulfill the maritime radar reconnaissance mission.[77][N 4] Operating high-altitude patrols over waters surrounding the British Isles, including the strategically critical GIUK gap between Iceland and the UK, the squadron utilized the Vulcan's H2S radar system to surveil maritime traffic. During peacetime missions, this radar surveillance was often supplemented by low-level flights to visually identify and photograph targets of interest. In wartime scenarios, visual target confirmation would be conducted by Buccaneers or Canberras, while Vulcans coordinated offensive operations involving Buccaneers against enemy vessels.[79] Initially outfitted with several B.2 models,[80] the squadron ultimately operated nine B.2 (MRR) variants—also unofficially referred to as SR.2 aircraft.[28][81] Modifications for this role included removal of the TFR and its associated thimble radome, along with installation of the LORAN C navigation system. Visually distinctive features comprised a glossy paint scheme with a light grey underside designed to withstand exposure to sea spray.[28]
Additionally, No. 27 Squadron assumed the secondary responsibility of air sampling from No. 543 Squadron.[28] This task involved flying through airborne contamination plumes to gather samples released by both surface and subterranean nuclear detonations for subsequent examination at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment in Aldermaston.[82] Five aircraft were equipped with small pylons on now-unused Skybolt hardpoints capable of carrying sampling pods converted from drop tanks.[N 5] These pods collected samples on filters during flight, complemented by a smaller "localiser" pod mounted on the port wing inboard of the main pylons.[78][81][83]
The squadron was disbanded at Scampton in March 1982, with its maritime radar reconnaissance responsibilities transferred to RAF Nimrod aircraft.[81]
Aerial refuelling function
Following the conclusion of the 1982 Falklands conflict, the Vulcan B.2 was scheduled for retirement from RAF operations within that year.[84] However, the intense operational demands during the Falklands campaign had significantly depleted the structural fatigue life of the RAF's Victor tanker fleet. Although tanker conversions of Vickers VC10 aircraft had been commissioned in 1979,[85] and orders for Lockheed TriStar tankers were placed post-conflict,[86] six Vulcans were converted into single-point refuelling tankers as an interim solution. This tanker modification involved removing electronic countermeasure jammers from the tail ECM bay and installing a single hose drum unit in their place.[71] Additionally, a cylindrical bomb-bay fuel tank was incorporated, boosting fuel capacity to nearly 100,000 lb (45,000 kg).[71][87]
Authorization for these six conversions was granted on 4 May 1982.[88] Remarkably, within just fifty days of approval, the first Vulcan tanker, designated XH561, was delivered to RAF Waddington.[71][88] The Vulcan K.2 tankers were operated by No. 50 Squadron alongside three Vulcan B.2 bombers, supporting UK air defence missions until the squadron's disbandment in March 1984.[89]
Vulcan Display Flight
Following No. 50 Squadron’s dissolution, two Vulcans remained active with the RAF for aerial displays under the banner of the Vulcan Display Flight, based at Waddington but administratively managed by No. 55 Squadron at RAF Marham. Initially, display duties were performed using XL426; however, this aircraft was sold in 1986 and replaced by XH558, which had commenced displays in 1985. The VDF continued operating XH558 until ceasing activities in 1992 after the Ministry of Defence deemed its operation financially unsustainable amid budget reductions. Both displayed aircraft were preserved post-service, while a third Vulcan, XH560—maintained as a reserve during early years—was eventually scrapped.
Engine test platforms
- The prototype VX770 originally equipped with Sapphire engines was re-engined in 1957 with four Rolls-Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofans producing 15,000 lbf (67 kN) thrust each. This aircraft was transferred to Rolls-Royce for use as a Conway test platform.[90] It operated with these pioneering turbofans—the world’s first—until its fatal accident in September 1958.[91]
- The initial Vulcan B.1 XA889 served as a flight clearance aircraft for Olympus variants 102 and 104.[92]
- In spring 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA891 was outfitted with four Olympus 200 engines to conduct extensive flight trials but crashed during a routine test in July of that year.[93]
- Vulcan B.1 XA894 operated with an unusual five-engine configuration: four Mk.101 Olympus engines plus an additional reheated Olympus 320 mounted beneath the wing nacelle intended for the BAC TSR-2 project; this aircraft was lost to a ground fire at Filton on December 3, 1962.[91]
- Withdrawn from RAF service in June 1964, Vulcan B.1 XA896 was earmarked for conversion into a test bed for the Bristol Siddeley BS100 vectored thrust turbofan developed for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154 project; however, following cancellation of P.1154 in February 1965, XA896 was scrapped before conversion could occur.[94]
- After sustaining a landing accident in 1958 and subsequent rebuild, Vulcan B.1 XA902 replaced VX770 as the Conway test bed fitted with four RCo.11 engines; later modifications replaced the two inner Conways with Rolls-Royce Spey engines, debuting this configuration on October 12, 1961.[91]
- Surplus to Blue Steel missile trials requirements, Vulcan B.1 XA903 was modified similarly to XA894 to evaluate the Olympus 593 engine installation intended for Concorde; its maiden flight occurred on October 1, 1966, with testing continuing until June 1971.[95] In April 1973, XA903 began flights fitted with an underslung Rolls-Royce RB.199 turbofan designed for the Panavia Tornado; it became the last B.1 model to fly before retirement in February 1979.[96]
- Vulcan B.2 XH557 was utilized by British Aircraft Corporation (BSEL) to develop the Olympus 301 engine and first flew with this larger powerplant in May 1961; it returned to Woodford in 1964 for refurbishment prior to re-entering RAF service.[97]
Variants
- B.1
- The original production model of the aircraft. Early units featured straight leading edges, which were later upgraded to phase 2 (kinked) wings. Initial finishes were silver, subsequently replaced by anti-flash white. Between 1959 and 1963, many B.1s were converted to the B.1A standard. The final unmodified B.1s serving with No. 230 OCU in the RAF were retired by 1966. The last recorded flight of a B.1, specifically the engine testbed XA903, occurred in March 1979.
- B.1A
- This variant of the B.1 incorporated an ECM system housed within an enlarged tail cone similar to that of the B.2. Unlike the B.2, B.1As did not receive significant wing reinforcement for low-altitude operations and were phased out from service between 1966 and 1967.
- B.2
- An enhanced iteration of the B.1 featuring a larger and thinner wing design (Phase 2C wing) and equipped with Olympus 201-202 or Olympus 301 engines. Electrical systems were upgraded to include AAPP and a Ram Air Turbine (RAT). The ECM suite was comparable to that of the B.1A. Most aircraft received a Thrust-Vectoring Radar (TFR) installed in a nose thimble radome during the mid-1960s. From the mid-1970s onwards, new radar warning receiver antennas on the tail fin gave it a distinctive squared-off top. Some reports mention a Vulcan B.2A designation, purportedly for B.2s fitted with Olympus Mk 301 engines or modified to carry Blue Steel missiles; however, officially only the B.2 designation was used aside from maritime reconnaissance and tanker variants.
- B.2 (MRR)
- Nine Vulcan B.2 aircraft were converted for maritime radar reconnaissance duties, with removal of the TFR system. Five of these were further adapted for air sampling tasks and featured a distinctive glossy finish with a light grey underside.
- K.2
- Six Vulcan B.2s were modified for air-to-air refuelling roles, equipped with a Mark 17 hose drum unit (HDU) mounted semi-recessed in the tail cone, and had their TFR removed. Outfitted with three bomb-bay fuel drum tanks, this variant was unique among Vulcans in having the capability to jettison fuel in emergencies.
- B.3
- A conceptual design intended as a long-range missile carrier capable of carrying up to six Skybolt missiles on missions lasting up to twelve hours. This version was never constructed.
Production
Woodford Aerodrome was responsible for assembling a total of 134 production Vulcans: 45 built to the B.1 specification and 89 as B.2 models, with the final aircraft delivered to the RAF in January 1965.
| Contract date | Quantity | Variant | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 Jul 1948 | Template:Right | Prototypes | Two prototypes entered service in August 1952 and September 1953 respectively. |
| 14 Aug 1952 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.1 | Production aircraft first flew on 4 February 1955; deliveries occurred from June 1955 through December 1957. |
| 30 Sep 1954 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.1 | Delivered between January 1958 and April 1959. |
| 30 Sep 1954 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered from September 1959 until December 1960. |
| 31 Mar 1955 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered between January and May 1961. |
| 25 Feb 1956 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Deliveries took place from July 1961 through November 1962. |
| 22 Jan 1958 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered between February 1963 and January 1965; one unit was retained as an unflown static test airframe. |
| Total | Template:Right |
Operators
- Aircraft from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment utilized for testing and assessment purposes
- Royal Air Force
- 9 Squadron operated the B.2 variant between 1962 and 1982
- 12 Squadron flew the B.2 from 1962 until 1967
- 27 Squadron used the B.2 from 1961 to 1972 and later the B.2 (MRR) from 1973 through 1982
- 35 Squadron operated the B.2 model from 1962 to 1982
- 44 Squadron flew the B.1/B.1A between 1960 and 1967, transitioning to the B.2 from 1966 to 1982
- 50 Squadron operated B.1/B.1A aircraft between 1961 and 1966, switched to the B.2 from 1966 to 1984, and also flew the K.2 tanker variant from 1982 to 1984
- 83 Squadron, the first Vulcan squadron, flew B.1/B.1A models from 1957 to 1960 and subsequently the B.2 until 1969
- 101 Squadron utilized the B.1/B1A from 1957 to 1967 and continued with the B.2 until 1982
- 617 Squadron operated OB.1/B1A types between 1958 and 1961, then adopted the B.2 variant from 1961 through to 1981
- 230 OCU served from 1956 to 1981 as the initial unit operating Vulcans, offering conversion and operational training for aircrew
- Bomber Command Development Unit
- The Vulcan To The Sky Trust maintained G-VLCN (formerly XH558), which flew until 2015, based at Doncaster Sheffield Airport until June 2023
- Various aircraft were also flown under Ministry of Supply/Aviation supervision for trials and evaluations conducted by Avro, Bristol Siddeley Engines, Rolls-Royce, and the Blind Landing Experimental Unit (BLEU)
Bases
- RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus hosted two B.2 squadrons between 1969 and 1975:
- No. 9 Squadron relocated here from Cottesmore in 1969 before returning to Waddington in the UK in 1975
- No. 35 Squadron also moved from Cottesmore in 1969 and returned to Scampton in 1975
- RAF Coningsby accommodated three squadrons operating B.2 models from 1962 until their transfer in 1964:
- No. 9 Squadron formed here in 1962 before moving to Cottesmore in '64
- No. 12 Squadron was established here in '62 and relocated to Cottesmore two years later
- No. 35 Squadron began operations here in '62 before moving on to Cottesmore in '64
- RAF Cottesmore served as base for three squadrons between 1964 and ’69:
- No. 9 Squadron transferred here from Coningsby in ’64 and departed for Akrotiri in ’69
- No.12 Squadron moved here from Coningsby in ’64 until its disbandment in ’67
- No.35 Squadron relocated here from Coningsby in ’64 before moving on to Akrotiri in ’69
- RAF Finningley:
- No.101 Squadron operated here as a second operational B.1 unit between ’57 and ’61 before relocating to Waddington
- The No.230 OCU moved here from Waddington in ’61, then transferred again to Scampton in ’69
- RAF Scampton hosted four squadrons at various intervals spanning from ’61 through ’82:
- No.27 Squadron formed here in ’61 with the B.2 until disbanded in ’72; it reformed in ’73 flying the B.2 (MRR) until ’82
- No.35 Squadron arrived from Akrotiri in ’75, flying the B.2 until its disbandment in March ’82
- No.83 Squadron reformed here in ’60 with the B.2 after previously operating B.1/B.1A at Waddington; disbanded in ’69
- No.617 Squadron established here in ’58 with the B.1, then reformed with the B.2 in ’61 until disbanding in ’81
- The No.230 OCU moved here from Finningley in ’69 until its closure in ’81
- RAF Waddington was home to several squadrons over periods between ’57 and ’84, marking both the first and last operational Vulcan base:
- No.9 Squadron returned here from Akrotiri in ’75 until disbanding in ’82
- No.44 Squadron formed here in ’60 operating B.1/B.1A models, converted to B.2 by ’66, disbanded in ’82
- No.50 Squadron started operations here with B.1/B1A types in ’61, transitioned to B.2 by ’66, added tanker K variants by ’82, disbanding finally in ’84
- No.83 Squadron was initially formed here as first operational squadron flying B.1 models between ’57 and ‘60 before reforming at Scampton as a B.2 unit later that year
- No.101 Squadron moved here from Finningley in ‘61 flying B .1/B .1A models, converted to B .2 by ‘67, disbanded ‘82
- The No .230 OCU was established at Waddington for crew training on Vulcans starting ‘56 before transferring to Finningley ‘61; final move made to Scampton ‘70
V-Bomber dispersal airfields
Should a transition to war occur, V Bomber squadrons were tasked with rapidly deploying four aircraft each to one of 26 designated dispersal airfields across the United Kingdom. During the early 1960s, the RAF procured 20 Beagle Basset communication planes specifically to transport crews to these dispersal locations. However, these aircraft's strategic relevance was short-lived, waning as the principal nuclear deterrent shifted to the Royal Navy's Polaris (UK nuclear programme).
Accidents and incidents
- On 1 October 1956, Vulcan B.1 XA897—the first unit delivered—crashed at London Heathrow Airport during Operation Tasman Flight, a goodwill tour to Australia and New Zealand. Following a ground-controlled approach amid adverse weather, the aircraft impacted terrain approximately 700 yd (640 m) short of the runway just as engine thrust was applied. The collision likely severed drag links on the main landing gear, forcing it backward and damaging the wing's trailing edge. XA897 briefly became airborne again after impact. Both pilot Squadron Leader D. R. Howard and co-pilot Air Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst, AOC-in-C Bomber Command, ejected safely; however, the remaining four occupants—including a spare pilot and an Avro representative—perished when the aircraft crashed again and disintegrated.
- In 1957, Vulcan B.1 XA892, assigned to the A&AEE at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing, inadvertently exceeded an indicated Mach number (IMN) of 1.04, signaling supersonic flight. Commanded by Flt Lt Milt Cottee (RAAF) and co-piloted by Flt Lt Ray Bray (RAF), the crew aimed for 478 mph (769 km/h) at 0.98 IMN while enduring a load factor of 3 g. After climbing to 35,000 ft (11,000 m), they initiated a dive intending to reach target speed at 27,000 ft (8,200 m). Nearing this altitude, throttles were closed and full up-elevator applied; nevertheless, XA892 continued pitching nose downward. Cottee considered inverting and rolling upright but instead deployed speed brakes which remained intact despite exceeding their maximum operating speed and successfully slowed the aircraft. It passed vertical orientation near 18,000 ft (5,500 m) and leveled off around 8,000 ft (2,400 m). Absence of a sonic boom suggests true Mach 1 was not attained. A deformed rear bulkhead was later discovered.
- On 20 September 1958, prototype Vulcan VX770 was flown by a Rolls-Royce test pilot on an engine performance mission that included a flypast at RAF Syerston’s Battle of Britain At Home event. After flying down the main runway and initiating a roll to starboard with a slight climb, the starboard wing failed catastrophically due to spar collapse. The aircraft entered a dive with the wing aflame before crashing, killing three personnel in a nearby controllers' caravan and all four crew aboard VX770. Investigations proposed causes including pilot error, metal fatigue from air intake vibrations, and insufficient maintenance procedures.
- On 24 October 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA908 of No. 83 Squadron RAF crashed east of Detroit, Michigan following a total electrical failure near 30,000 ft (9,100 m) altitude. Although backup power was designed to last twenty minutes enabling diversion to local airports, it failed after only three minutes due to a short circuit in the service busbar which immobilized controls. En route to Lincoln AFB in Nebraska, XA908 entered a steep dive and crashed, creating a forty-foot (12 m) crater excavated during wreckage recovery efforts. Despite extensive property damage on the ground, there were no fatalities among civilians and only one injury reported; all six crew members died—including the co-pilot who ejected but whose body was recovered months later from Lake St Clair. The crew were interred at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Trenton alongside eleven RAF student pilots lost during WWII nearby.
- On 24 July 1959, Vulcan B.1 XA891 suffered an electrical malfunction during an engine test flight shortly after takeoff. Generator warning lights illuminated along with loss of busbar voltage; Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison climbed to 14,000 ft (4,300 m), steering clear of populated areas while attempts were made to rectify the issue. When regaining control proved impossible, Harrison ordered rear compartment crew to bail out and co-pilot to eject before ejecting himself—marking the first full crew escape from a Vulcan aircraft. The plane crashed near Kingston upon Hull.
- On 26 October 1959, Vulcan B.1 XH498 took part in an airshow celebrating Wellington International Airport’s opening (formerly Rongotai Airport). After performing a "touch-and-go landing" on Runway 34 and preparing for full-stop landing, turbulence and wind shear caused XH498 to touch down short of the runway threshold. The port undercarriage leg struck an embankment at Moa Point’s southern end causing damage to wing attachments, engine fuel lines, and rupturing the main landing gear drag link which compromised support capability. The port wing tip nearly contacted runway surface before lifting off again spilling fuel over spectators gathered on the western apron—averted disaster thanks to pilot actions ensuring safety amid crowd presence. XH498 proceeded safely to RNZAF Ohakea for emergency landing on nose and starboard gear only with minimal further damage; it was subsequently repaired in the UK and returned to service until October 1967.
- On 16 September 1960, Vulcan B.2 XH557 damaged Filton’s "Runway Garage" while being delivered for Olympus 301 engine testing by Bristol Siddeley Engines. Approaching in poor visibility conditions, it touched down midway on the runway; though braking parachute deployed, realizing insufficient stopping distance remained prompted throttle increase for go-around. Jet blast caused significant property damage including flattening four petrol pumps, knocking down streetlights on the A38 road, toppling railings, and shattering multiple vehicle windscreens before diverting safely to St Mawgan; it returned to Filton days later.
- On 12 June 1963, Vulcan B.1A XH477 from No. 50 Squadron RAF crashed into terrain during low-level training exercises in Aberdeenshire, Scotland; all five crew members aboard were killed.
- On 11 May 1964 during demonstration flights from Boscombe Down, Vulcan B.2 XH535 entered a spin while exhibiting very low speed combined with high descent rate maneuvers. Deployment of landing parachute briefly halted spin before resumption occurred; at around 2,500 ft (760 m), commander ordered crew evacuation—pilot and co-pilot successfully ejected but rear compartment crew failed likely due to g forces experienced within spin.
- On 16 July 1964 in Anglesey, Vulcan B.1A XA909 suffered mid-air explosion leading to shutdown of both No.3 and No.4 engines caused by bearing failure in No.4 engine; extensive starboard wing damage resulted in reduced aileron effectiveness and inaccurate airspeed readings but entire crew managed successful bailout and rescue shortly thereafter.
- On 7 October 1964 during asymmetric power practice overshoot at Coningsby, Vulcan B.2 XM601 crashed after co-pilot applied full throttle too rapidly while being checked by unfamiliar squadron commander; resultant asymmetric thrust exceeded rudder control limits causing spin fatality for entire crew.
- On 25 May 1965 Vulcan B.2 XM576 crash-landed at Scampton shortly after delivery leading to write-off within its first year of service.
- On 11 February 1966 during low-level exercise over Brecon Beacons near Fan Bwlch Chwyth summit (1,978 feet (603 m)), Vulcan B.2 XH536 from IX Squadron RAF Cottesmore Wing collided with terrain at approximately 1,910 feet (580 m), killing all crew members amid snow-covered hilltops and cloud base descending to around 1,400 feet (430 m).
- On 6 April 1967 at RAF Scampton during takeoff run carrying Blue Steel missile training round, Vulcan B.2 XL385 suffered catastrophic failure of Olympus 301 HP turbine disc reaching full power resulting in fire that destroyed aircraft; all onboard including Air Training Corps cadet escaped unharmed.
- On 30 January 1968 following overshoot loss of control at RAF Cottesmore due to Olympus 301 LP turbine disc failure after bomb-bay overheat indication, Vulcan B.2 XM604 crashed killing rear crew members though both pilots ejected—captain survived late ejection aided by parachute snagging on power cables.
- On 7 January 1971 Vulcan B.2 XM610 from No.44 Squadron experienced blade fatigue failure in No.1 engine causing fuel system damage and fire; crew safely abandoned aircraft which subsequently crashed harmlessly near Wingate.
- On 14 October 1975 during emergency landing approach at RAF Luqa Malta following left undercarriage loss causing airframe damage, Vulcan B.2 XM645 from No.9 Squadron undershot runway threshold then broke apart over Żabbar town; pilot and co-pilot escaped via ejection seats but five other crew perished along with one civilian fatality caused by falling debris; approximately twenty others sustained injuries.
- On 17 January 1977 near Spilsby Lincolnshire during practice emergency descent Vulcan B.2 XM600 from No.101 Squadron encountered bomb-bay fire warning followed by No.2 engine fire indication; captain shut down engine while flames appeared behind deployed ram air turbine (RAT). Fire escalated prompting order to abandon aircraft: rear crew bailed out around 6,000 feet (1,800 m), co-pilot ejected on command followed by captain ejecting near 3,000 feet (910 m) amid loss of control due to electrical arcing on RAT terminals igniting adjacent fuel line.
- On 12 August 1978 Vulcan B.2 XL390 from No.617 Squadron crashed during unauthorized air display at Naval Air Station Glenview Illinois USA after performing low-level run below approximately 100 feet (30 m), followed by improperly executed wingover maneuver resulting in stall and fatal crash killing entire crew.
- On 3 June 1982 returning from Falklands mission Vulcan XM597 suffered probe breakage during aerial refueling attempt leading to fuel shortage preventing return to Ascension Island base; pilot discarded classified materials over Atlantic then diverted into Brazilian airspace where two Brazilian Air Force Northrop F-5 fighters escorted it safely to Galeão Air Force Base Rio de Janeiro sparking diplomatic negotiations between UK and neutral Brazil culminating in release after seven days under condition that XM597 would no longer participate in conflict.
- On 28 May 2012 while commencing takeoff roll at Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Vulcan B.2 XH558 encountered simultaneous failure of both port engines caused by inadvertent ingestion of silica gel desiccant bags left inside air intake post-maintenance; immediate destruction of first engine debris damaged second port engine resulting in its failure as well though fire suppression systems prevented further harm allowing safe ground stop without damage or loss of control; aircraft returned to flight status on 3 July that year.[98]
Surviving aircraft
A number of Vulcan bombers remain preserved, exhibited in museums across both the United Kingdom and North America (United States and Canada). Among them, Avro Vulcan XH558 (registration G-VLCN), known as the Spirit of Great Britain, served as a display aircraft for the RAF's Vulcan Display Flight until 1993. Following its retirement from active flying duties, it underwent a comprehensive restoration by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and was showcased as a civilian-operated aircraft between 2008 and 2015, after which it was retired again due to engineering concerns. Post-retirement, XH558 is planned to remain at Doncaster Sheffield Airport in a taxiable condition, joining two other operational survivors: XL426 (G-VJET), stationed at Southend Airport, and XM655 (G-VULC), located at Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield. The B.2 variant XJ823 is displayed at the Solway Aviation Museum situated at Carlisle Lake District Airport. Additionally, XM607 is undergoing restoration at RAF Waddington, where it has served as gate guardian since retirement. XM594 is exhibited at the Newark Air Museum in Newark, Nottinghamshire, England.
Specifications (B.1)
Comparison of variants
| B.1 | B.1A | B.2 | B.2 (MRR) | K.2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wingspan | 99 ft 5 in (30.30 m) | 111 ft 0 in (33.83 m) | |||
| Length | 97 ft 1 in (29.59 m) | 105 ft 6 in (32.16 m) [99 ft 11 in (30.45 m) excluding probe] | |||
| Height | 26 ft 6 in (8.08 m) | 27 ft 1 in (8.26 m) | |||
| Wing area | 3,554 sq ft (330.2 m2)[101] | 3,964 sq ft (368.3 m2)[101] | |||
| Maximum takeoff weight | 167,000 lb (76,000 kg) 185,000 lb (84,000 kg) (operational requirement) |
204,000 lb (93,000 kg) | |||
! Cruising speed
|| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.86 indicated
|}
! Maximum speed
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.95 indicated
|| style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.93 indicated
(Mach 0.92 with 301 engines)
|| style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.93 indicated
|| style="text-align:center;" | Unknown
|}
! Service ceiling
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |56,000 ft[101]
|| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |Between 45,000 ft and 60,000 ft[nb 1]
|}
! Electrical system
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |112 V direct current
|| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |115/200 V alternating current Three-phase electric power 400 Hertz
|}
! Emergency electrical system
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Battery-powered
|| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |Ram air turbine and Auxiliary power unit (Airborne Auxiliary Power Plant)
|}
! Engines
|| style="text-align:center;" |4 × Rolls-Royce Olympus Bristol
Olympus 101, 102, or 104 variants
|| style="text-align:center;" |4 × Bristol
Olympus 104
|| style="text-align:center;" |4 × Bristol Siddeley
Olympus 200-series, including 301 model
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |4 × Bristol Siddeley
Olympus 200-series engines
|}
! Fuel capacity (main)
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |9,280 imp gal (11,140 US gal; 42,200 L) / 74,240 lb (33,675 kg) Jet fuel (avtur)[nb 2]
|| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |9,260 imp gal (11,120 US gal; 42,100 L) / 74,080 lb (33,602 kg)
|}
! Fuel capacity (bomb bay)
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |None
|| style="text-align:center;" |0–1,990 imp gal (0–2,390 US gal; 0–9,047 L) / 0–15,920 lb (0–7,221 kg)
|| style="text-align:center;" |1,990 imp gal (2,390 US gal; 9,000 L) / 15,920 lb (7,221 kg)[nb 3]
|| style="text-align:center;" |2,985 imp gal (3,585 US gal; 13,570 L) / 23,880 lb (10,832 kg)[nb 4]
|}
! Powered flying controls
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |One duplex rudder, four elevators, four ailerons
|| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |One duplex rudder, eight elevons
|}
! Armament
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |
One free-fall nuclear bomb or
21 conventional bombs of [convert: needs a number] each
|| style="text-align:center;" |
One Blue Steel missile or
one free-fall nuclear bomb or
21 conventional bombs of [convert: needs a number] each
|| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |
None
|}
Significant media appearances
Related topics
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Notes
- ↑ A contract for 25 production aircraft was awarded in July 1952. An equal number of the competing Handley Page design, later named Victor, were also commissioned.[2]
- ↑ Bristol Aero Engines merged with Armstrong Siddeley in 1959 to form Bristol Siddeley, which was later acquired by Rolls-Royce in 1966.[37]
- ↑ At that time in UK terminology, "megaton range" referred to yields of 500 kt or more.[54] The Green Grass warhead was estimated to yield around 500 kt.[55]
- ↑ The other two squadrons within the Scampton Wing, No. 35 and 617 Squadron, also held secondary maritime reconnaissance responsibilities.[78]
- ↑ Sources differ on whether these pods originated from de Havilland Sea Vixen or Hawker Hunter drop tanks.[28] [81]
Citations
- ↑ Blackman 2007, pp. 82/83
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 62.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, p. 48.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Blackman 2007, pp. 128–129.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 48.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 217–219.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 145.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 46.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey, 2009, p. 12.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes intro. Para. 1.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt. 1, ch. 16, para. 5.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 217–220.
- ↑ 16,000 lb Thrust Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight 15 February 1957 p 200
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 62.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, pp. 315, 316.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 154.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 314.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 82.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 218, 219
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 230.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 63,64.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p.152.
- ↑ Wynn1997,p401.
- ↑ Bulman2001,pp155–161.
- ↑ Bulman2001,p155–161.
- ↑ Bulman2001,p149–150.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey2009,p21–23.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 Brookes and Davey2009,p83.
- ↑ Darling2007,p122.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedavrotypelist - ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedGibson - ↑ Force V: The history of Britain's airborne deterrent, by Andrew Brookes. Jane's Publishing Co Ltd; First Edition 1 Jan. 1982, ISBN 0710602383, p.131.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 18.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 11.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 13.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 45, 46.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 108.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 47.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 63.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, pp. 44–46.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 50.
- ↑ "16,000 lb Thrust." Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight, 15 February 1957, p. 200.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, pp. 50–64.
- ↑ Buttler 2007, p. 72.
- ↑ "We all love the howl" Archived 11 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine Vulcan To The Sky Trust, 13 December 2013.
- ↑ "Will 'howl' of the Vulcan bomber be heard over Bournemouth again?" The Daily Echo, 30 December 2009.
- ↑ "Vulcan XH558 Awesome Howl Sounds" Archived 17 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine YouTube, 28 October 2012.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 6.
- ↑ Leitch Air Enthusiast September/October 2003, pp. 55, 58.
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Darling 2007, p. 32.
- ↑ Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, p. 48.
- ↑ Leitch Air Enthusiast September/October 2003, p. 57.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 19.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 76.
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 14.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 43.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 14–15.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 88.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 116.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 89.
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 Darling 2007, p. 65.
- ↑ "Royal Air Force loses nuclear arsenal." AP Online, March 31, 1998.
- ↑ Segell 1997, p.124.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 Bull 2004, p. 84.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 63.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 "The Falkland Islands: A history of the 1982 conflict." Royal Air Force, 29 April 2010.
- ↑ Darling 2007, pp. 116–117.
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 Braybook 1982, p. 17.
- ↑ Hearn 2007, p. 268.
- ↑ White 2006
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 118.
- ↑ Kev Darling, RAR Illustrated: Avro Vulcan Part 1, Big Bird Publications 2007 (p.119)
- ↑ Chris Chant, Air War in the Falklands 1982, Osprey Publishing Limited 2001 (p.92)
- ↑ Jones V-Bombers 2007, pp. 158–159.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, p. 67.
- ↑ Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, pp. 67, 78.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p. 87.
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 81.3 Jones V-Bombers 2007, p. 159.
- ↑ Brookes 2011, p. 70.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p. 90.
- ↑ Polmar and Bell 2004, p. 261.
- ↑ "Defence." Archived 13 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 14 April 1979, p. 1136.
- ↑ Frawley 2002, p. 44.
- ↑ Halpenny 2006, p. 244.
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 Halpenny 2006, p. 243.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 124.
- ↑ Jackson 1990, pp. 409–411.
- ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 Jackson 1990, p. 411.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, p. 44.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, p. 50.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 15.
- ↑ Austin 2009, pp. 111–113.
- ↑ Austin 2009, p. 113.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, pp. 60, 64.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ Pilot's Notes AP 4505-C PN
- ↑ Aircrew Manual AP 101B-1902-15
- ↑ 101.0 101.1 101.2 Blackman 2007, p. 213.
Bibliography
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- {{cite book {| last ="Price"| first ="Alfred"| last2 ="Blackman"| first2 ="Tony"| last3 ="Edmondson"| first3 ="Andrew"| title ="Avro Vulcan Manual: An Insight into Owning Restoring Servicing and Flying Britain's Legendary Cold War Bomber (Owner's Workshop Manual)" Publisher ="Haynes"| location ="Sparkford Somerset UK"| year ="2010"| isbn ="978–1–84425–831–4"}}}
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Further reading
- Arnold, Lorna. Britain and the H-Bomb. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK, 2001. ISBN 0-333-94742-8.
- Chesnau, Roger and Ray Rimell. Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 (Aeroguide 29). Ad Hoc Publications, Ringshall, Suffolk, UK, 2003. ISBN 0-946958-39-4.
- Dodds, Colin. "Flying the Tin Triangle." Aeroplane, Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue 408, April 2007.
- Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Crowood Press, Wiltshire, UK, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.
- McLelland, Tim. The Avro Vulcan: A Complete History. Crécy Publishing Limited, Manchester, UK, 2007. ISBN 978-0-85979-127-4.
External links
- Avro Vulcan Bomber Tribute Page Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Vulcan to the Sky
- Vulcans in Camera
- Vulcan history
- Vulcan Restoration Trust Archived 18 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Video of Roland Falk rolling a Vulcan at Farnborough in 1955 Archived 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- History of Vulcan Test Pilot Roly Falk
- Building the Vulcan Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine – article from Flight, 1957
- The Vulcan Story Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine – Flight article published in 1958
- The Virtues of the Avro Vulcan Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine – a 1954 advertisement for the Vulcan by AVRO in Flight magazine
- Autobiography of Bill Wood, a Vulcan test pilot Archived 28 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine
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