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Short Brothers

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Short Brothers plc
Company typePublic limited company
IndustryAerospace
Founded1908 in London, England
FounderOswald Short, Horace Short, Eustace Short
FateAcquired by Bombardier (1989); operations sold to Spirit AeroSystems (2020)
SuccessorSpirit AeroSystems (for Belfast operations)
Headquarters
Belfast
,
Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
Area served
Worldwide
ProductsAircraft parts, engine nacelles, flight control systems, flying boats, turboprop airliners, missiles
OwnerBombardier (until 2020), then Spirit AeroSystems
Number of employees
 (2007 (largest manufacturing enterprise in Northern Ireland))
ParentBombardier (until 2020), then Spirit AeroSystems


This article is about the aerospace firm. For the shipbuilding company, see Short Brothers of Sunderland.

Short Brothers plc, commonly known as Shorts or Short, is an aerospace enterprise headquartered in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Established in 1908 in London, it holds the distinction of being the world's first company to produce aeroplanes on a commercial scale. The firm gained particular recognition for its flying boat designs, which remained in production through the 1950s.

Following nationalisation in 1943 and subsequent privatisation, Shorts relocated from its principal facility at Rochester, Kent to Belfast in 1948. Throughout the 1960s, the company focused on manufacturing turboprop airliners, supplying major aerospace manufacturers with key components, and producing missiles for the British Armed Forces.

Initially majority-owned by the British government, Shorts was acquired by Bombardier in 1989. By 2007, it was Northern Ireland’s largest manufacturing enterprise. In November 2020, Bombardier divested its Belfast operations to Spirit AeroSystems.

The product portfolio includes aircraft parts, engine nacelles, and flight control systems supplied to leading aerospace companies such as Bombardier Aerospace, Boeing, Rolls-Royce Deutschland, General Electric, and Pratt & Whitney.

Founding period

File:Short brothers.jpg
From left to right: Oswald (1883–1969), Horace (1872–1917), and Eustace Short (1875–1932) at Mussell Manor in 1909.
File:Muswell-Manor.jpg
Muswell Manor, serving as the Royal Aero Club's clubhouse

The origins of Short Brothers trace back to 1897 when Eustace Short (1875–1932) purchased a second-hand coal gas-filled balloon. Together with his brother Oswald Short, they founded a business dedicated to balloon development and production. In 1900, the brothers attended the 1900 Paris Exposition where they observed spherical balloons designed by Édouard Surcouf of Société Astra.

By 1902, they had begun commercial balloon sales. Production took place in Hove, Sussex, above an acoustic laboratory operated by their brother Horace (1872–1917). When Horace departed in 1903 to collaborate on steam turbine innovations with Charles Parsons, Eustace and Oswald relocated their workshop first to London and then to railway arches in Battersea adjacent to Battersea gas-works.

A significant contract was secured in 1905 to supply three balloons for the British Indian Army. Their craftsmanship impressed Colonel James Templer, superintendent of the Royal Balloon Factory, who introduced them to Charles Rolls. Rolls commissioned a large balloon for competition in the 1906 Gordon Bennett Cup race. Additional commissions followed from members of the Aero Club of Great Britain (later the Royal Aero Club).

In response to reports from Aero Club members who had witnessed Wright brothers' demonstrations at Le Mans in France during 1908, Oswald Short reportedly told Eustace that ballooning's era was ending and that they must commence aeroplane production immediately with Horace’s involvement. Persuading Horace to leave Parsons’ employment, they formalised their partnership as Short Brothers in November 1908. Early orders included a glider for Charles Rolls and an aircraft for Francis McClean, an Aero Club member who later became a test pilot for the firm. By early 1909, construction began on McClean’s aircraft, the Short No.1 biplane, which was exhibited without fabric covering at the inaugural British Aero Show at Olympia.

File:HMS Hibernia first ship aircraft takeoff 1912 IWM Q 71041.jpg
Commander Charles Rumney Samson performing the first aircraft take-off from a moving ship, May 1912

In February 1909, Shorts commenced building a new workshop on open marshland at Leysdown near Shellbeach on the Isle of Sheppey. This site had been acquired by the Aero Club as a flying ground along with Mussell Manor (later known as Muswell Manor), which served as its clubhouse. Production began immediately on six aircraft models. This established Short Brothers as the first company worldwide to engage in serial production of an aircraft design. Under contract, they also built the Dunne D.5—the earliest tailless aircraft. In 1910 both the Royal Aero Club and Shorts moved operations approximately 2.5 miles away to Eastchurch airfield on more stable terrain. At this stage, the Royal Aero Club offered use of its flying field to the Admiralty; Frank McClean agreed to provide instruction, initiating a close relationship between Shorts and the Naval Air Service whose initial pilots trained on Short S.27 pusher biplanes.

In 1911 Shorts produced one of history’s earliest successful twin-engine planes—the Triple Twin model—and began a series of naval floatplane constructions starting with the Short S.26. Gordon Bell became Shorts’ first professional test pilot in 1913; Ronald Kemp succeeded him in 1914 but was soon overwhelmed by testing demands leading to freelance pilots being hired by 1916. Among these was John Lankester Parker who took over as Chief Test Pilot in 1918 and maintained that role for twenty-seven years. In tribute to their pioneering contributions to aviation, a statue commemorating the Short brothers was unveiled in 2013 at Muswell Manor’s former Aero Club clubhouse site by artist Barbara Street.

First World War

File:Short Brothers Statue.jpg
Statue of Short Brothers located at the site of their aero club (Musswell Manor, Isle of Sheppey)

By the time World War I commenced, Shorts had already been manufacturing a range of aircraft models. The scale of production significantly increased during the conflict, notably with the Short Admiralty Type 184, commonly referred to as the "Short S.184". On 15 August 1915, amid the Battle of Gallipoli, a Short S.184 became the first airplane to successfully launch an attack on a ship using a live torpedo. Operating from HMS Ben-my-Chree and piloted by Flight Commander Charles Edmonds, it struck a Turkish supply vessel in the Dardanelles.[1] In terms of production volume, the S.184 was Shorts' most prolific aircraft before the Second World War, with over 900 units manufactured, many under licence by other companies. A land-based variant of this model was also adopted by the Royal Flying Corps and designated as the Short Bomber.[2]

Throughout the First World War, Shorts contributed to producing two flying boat models, the F.3 and F.5, both designed by John Porte at the Seaplane Experimental Station, Felixstowe. By war’s end, approximately 50 units were under construction at Rochester.[3]

Expansion at Rochester

File:Short 184.jpg
Short 184 floatplane

The company’s growth and rising demand for seaplanes necessitated larger facilities with direct sea access. At that period, seaplanes were transported by road to Queenborough before being loaded onto lighters for transfer to the RNAS seaplane base on the Isle of Grain for launching and testing.[4] In 1913, an area measuring 8.4 acres (3.4 hectares) alongside the river Medway, roughly 20 miles (32 km) away in Borstal,[4] close to Rochester, Kent, was acquired from Charles Willis, a local councillor. Planning and construction commenced shortly thereafter.[5] By early 1915, the initial building of what would become known as the Seaplane Works was finalized: No.1 Erecting Shop. As No.2 and No.3 shops were completed, staff relocated from the Eastchurch factory to this new site. The No.3 shop was finished in 1917. Additionally, a lengthy concrete slipway was built extending from the midpoint of No.3 Erecting Shop to facilitate launching aircraft weighing up to 20 tons even during low tide conditions.[5]

Airships at Cardington

In 1916, Short Brothers secured a contract from the Admiralty to construct two sizable dirigible airships. To facilitate this, the company received a loan that allowed the acquisition of land near Cardington, Bedfordshire for establishing airship manufacturing facilities. Consequently, Short Brothers focused their heavier-than-air aircraft production around the Isle of Sheppey and Rochester, while their balloon and dirigible manufacturing took place at Cardington. The residential area developed by the company close to Cardington for its workforce still carries the name Shortstown. In 1919, the company was renamed Short Brothers (Rochester and Bedford) Ltd., but nationalisation that same year ended the involvement of the Short brothers themselves, and the firm transitioned into the Royal Airship Works.

1920s and 1930s

File:Short Sunderland.jpg
Short Sunderland, operated by the RAF and Commonwealth during the Second World War

The period immediately following World War I posed significant economic challenges for Britain’s aviation sector. Shorts managed to maintain its workforce by branching out into manufacturing lightweight bodies for buses and trams. During the 1920s and 1930s, flying boats gained popularity for long-distance civil aviation since they did not require established airfields, which were scarce at that time. Shorts entered this market, constructing a 350-foot (107 m) test tank in 1924 to evaluate hull and float designs. The company designed floats used on the Supermarine S.4 and Gloster III seaplanes that represented Britain in the 1925 Schneider Trophy competition. Alan Cobham’s de Havilland DH.50 (G-EBFO) was also equipped with floats from Shorts at Rochester. On 30 June 1926, Cobham embarked on a flight to Australia from the Medway River. Furthermore, two de Havilland Giant Moth aircraft were fitted with Shorts floats at Rochester; the first flew in June 1928, with both later delivered to Western Canada Airlines Ltd.

In 1924, Shorts introduced the first model in a trio of designs known as the Singapore. By 1927, Sir Alan Cobham utilized the Singapore I during an extensive African survey flight covering approximately 23,000 miles. Following this, Shorts began developing the Short Calcutta, an enlarged and more powerful derivative of the Singapore design, which entered service with Imperial Airways in August 1928. By April 1929, two additional Calcuttas had joined the fleet, operating preferred passenger routes along coastal cities from Genoa to Alexandria, including stops at Athens, Corfu, Naples, and Rome. Several Calcuttas served shorter routes and played a vital role in enabling long-distance airline services between various British Empire territories. Subsequently, Shorts produced four Calcuttas before advancing to larger aircraft such as the Kent, followed by even bigger models like the Short Empire, whose inaugural flight took place on 2 July 1936. The Empire was commissioned directly by Imperial Airways (later known as BOAC) to support Britain's Empire Airmail network.

In 1937, Shorts secured a British government contract for producing the Sunderland military patrol flying boat. While sharing design elements with previous models, it featured aerodynamic and hydrodynamic improvements alongside a more rounded fuselage top housing multiple gunner positions. Feared by German U-boats, British propaganda claimed that German forces nicknamed it "The Flying Porcupine" (Fliegendes Stachelschwein), although no documented evidence confirms this assertion. In 1933, Shorts inaugurated a new factory at Rochester Airport, which was gaining significance for their landplane production. The Eastchurch facility was shut down in 1934—the same year Shorts acquired engine manufacturer Pobjoy, which had relocated to Rochester Airport to collaborate closely with Shorts on new designs.

On 5 July 1937, an Imperial Airways-operated Short Empire undertook the inaugural westbound transatlantic flight from Foynes, Ireland to Newfoundland.

Initial Establishment in Belfast

In 1936, the Air Ministry inaugurated a new aircraft manufacturing facility in Belfast, leading to the formation of Short & Harland Ltd. This enterprise was equally owned by Harland and Wolff and Shorts, each holding a 50% stake. The factory's initial output included 50 Bristol Bombay aircraft, followed by a production run of 150 Handley-Page Hereford bombers.

Shorts' expertise in seaplane construction eventually produced the Short Sandringham and Short Seaford, both derivatives of the Empire/Sunderland flying boats. These aircraft possessed sufficient range for transatlantic passenger service but predominantly catered to the post-war Empire (Commonwealth) routes. They competed with four-engine landplanes such as adapted Avro Lancasters, Avro Lancastrian, and Avro York models.

The Coral Route, operated by Tasman Empire Airways Limited (TEAL), connected New Zealand with destinations including Fiji, the Cook Islands, and Tahiti across the South Pacific, utilizing Short Solent flying boats until 1960.

World War II Era

File:Short Brothers HQ Belfast close.jpg
Short Brothers headquarters in Belfast, completed in 1941

During the Battle of Britain, the Rochester plant suffered severe damage from bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, resulting in the destruction of several Stirlings and other aircraft. In Easter week 1941, Belfast endured the most severe air raid outside London during the Belfast Blitz. To mitigate production disruptions caused by these attacks, auxiliary manufacturing sites were established near Belfast at Aldergrove and Maghaberry, where a combined total of 232 Stirlings were built. A provisional Short's facility at White Cross Bay, Windermere, produced 35 Sunderland Mark III aircraft. Additionally, over 600 Stirlings were assembled by Austin Motors in Longbridge, Birmingham, while Blackburn Aircraft manufactured 240 Sunderlands at its shadow factory located in Dumbarton, Scotland.

Throughout the Second World War, the Short Sunderland served as an effective anti-submarine patrol bomber under RAF Coastal Command. It operated extensively in the Battle of the Atlantic, Mediterranean theatre, Asia, and South Pacific due to its endurance, armament capacity, and availability. Besides combat roles, it performed air-sea rescue missions. When Sunderland numbers were insufficient, Australia requisitioned Qantas-Imperial Short Empire flying boats for military reconnaissance, particularly around the Timor Sea.

An enlarged transatlantic variant of the Empire flying boat, designated S.26 G-Class, was developed; however, only three units were completed before wartime priorities halted further production.

Shorts' involvement with the Sunderland led to securing the contract for the Short Stirling, a four-engine bomber-transport for the RAF. Essentially a land-based adaptation of the Sunderland design, it featured a thick-section, low aspect ratio wing intended for rapid deployment. This design choice limited its climbing ability and operational ceiling. Furthermore, its bomb-carrying system employed individual cells that restricted its capability to carry larger bombs introduced later in the war. Originally conceived as an interim solution pending delivery of the Handley Page Halifax and Avro Manchester bombers, it also served as a troop and cargo transport once those aircraft became widely available. Despite Shorts proposing upgraded versions to extend its operational relevance, these offers were declined partly due to concerns over Oswald Short's leadership style and personal issues.

In 1944, Shorts constructed the Short Shetland, a high-speed, long-range flying boat powered by four engines; wings and detailed design elements were supplied by Saunders-Roe. However, this project was discontinued soon after World War II concluded. Meanwhile, converted Sunderland variants entered service as transport aircraft starting during wartime with the Hythe, which was a demilitarized Sunderland featuring faired-over turrets. Postwar developments included the Sandringham, which streamlined the fuselage by removing turret housings, followed by the definitive Solent, characterized by an enlarged tail section and more powerful engines along with refinements derived from the cancelled wartime Seaford, intended as one of the final Sunderland evolutions.

In 1943, under Defence Regulation 78, Short's was nationalised by the Government. Oswald Short had stepped down as Chairman earlier that year in January but continued his association as Honorary Life President.

Postwar Era

File:Short Sperrin Gyron engine.jpg
Test bed for the Short Sperrin Gyron engine (lower port engine) displayed at the Farnborough SBAC Airshow, September 1955
File:C-23.jpg
The US military adaptation of the Shorts 330, marking one of the company's most successful modern aircraft following the Shorts 360.
File:Short 360, Short Skyvan and Short 330 at 1982 Farnborough Airshow.jpg
A lineup featuring a Short 360, Short Skyvan, and Short 330 at the 1982 Farnborough Airshow.
File:ShortFJX.png
The discontinued Short FJX regional jet

By 1947, all of Shorts' wartime manufacturing sites had been shut down, consolidating operations exclusively in Belfast. The company offices relocated there in 1948, solidifying Shorts as a fully Belfast-based enterprise. Concurrently, in 1947, Short Brothers (Rochester and Bedford) Ltd. merged with Short and Harland Limited, forming Short Brothers and Harland Limited, with Oswald Short retaining the position of Life President.

Throughout the 1950s, Shorts engaged in extensive innovative research, designing and producing pioneering VTOL aircraft such as the Short SC.1, alongside the Short SB5 and the experimental Short SB.4 Sherpa. The company developed the Short Sperrin, a jet-powered bomber intended as a contingency if the V bomber projects failed, as well as the Short Seamew, an economical anti-submarine reconnaissance and attack plane aimed at equipping Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve units. However, the Sperrin was ultimately unnecessary, and RNVR squadrons were disbanded. During this decade, Shorts also secured subcontracts to manufacture 150 English Electric Canberra bombers; the first of these took flight on 30 October 1952. Shorts delivered a total of 60 Canberra B.2s, 49 B.6s, and 23 P.R.9s, while an additional order for 18 was cancelled by governmental decision in 1957. Further work included converting worn Canberra B.2s into unmanned radio-controlled missile target drones—producing two prototypes plus ten Canberra U.10s, followed by six enhanced U.14 models. These drones operated via ground-based VHF radio control and were equipped to relay data concerning their own performance and missile impacts.

As early as 1953, Shorts ventured into developing electronic analogue computers to support increasingly sophisticated aircraft design processes.

In 1954, the Bristol Aeroplane Company acquired a 15.25% stake in Shorts, providing capital that enabled the establishment of a production line for the Bristol Britannia turboprop airliner—familiarly dubbed The Whispering Giant. Initially planned to produce 35 Britannias at Shorts, reduced demand at Bristol led to a cutback; ultimately only 15 Britannias were completed by Shorts, with five sets of components shipped to Filton for continued assembly.

During the 1960s, Shorts identified a market gap for a compact freighter aircraft and introduced the Short SC.7 Skyvan. Recognized for its distinctive boxy shape and rectangular twin tail fins, the Skyvan earned acclaim for its operational capabilities and cargo handling efficiency. It occupied a similar role to the de Havilland Twin Otter, but gained greater popularity in freight operations due to its large rear cargo door facilitating oversized loads. The Skyvan remains operational worldwide today.

The heavy-lift freighter Short SC.5 Belfast made its maiden flight in 1964; only ten units were produced for service with the Royal Air Force. In the following decade, Shorts expanded into the feederliner segment with the introduction of the Shorts 330, an elongated variant of the Skyvan known as C-23 Sherpa within USAF service. A further stretched model resulted in the more aerodynamically refined Shorts 360, which replaced the earlier twin H-tail configuration with a conventional central vertical fin.

In 1988, plans were unveiled for developing a regional jet accommodating 44 passengers named the FJX. Intended to compete with contemporaneous projects like the Bombardier CRJ100, this initiative was terminated following Bombardier’s acquisition of Short Brothers.

Loyalist Paramilitary Activity

In 1987, loyalist employees at Shorts displayed loyalist flags and decorations with the intent to intimidate Catholic colleagues. When management removed these flags from the workplace, the loyalist staff initiated a strike in response.

In April 1989, three men from Northern Ireland—Noel Little, Samuel Quinn, and James King—were detained in Paris and subsequently convicted for "arms trafficking and collaborating with criminals linked to terrorist activities." They faced allegations of stealing missile components and confidential documents related to Shorts' products. Additionally, arms dealer Douglas Bernhardt and a South African diplomat were apprehended during this investigation.

A loyalist assault in 1993 targeted a mini-bus carrying Catholic subcontractors employed at Shorts, resulting in one fatality and five injuries. This attack was intended as a deterrent to discourage Catholics from seeking employment at the company.

Belfast City Airport

Shorts established an airfield adjacent to its Belfast factory in 1937, which became known as Sydenham Airport. Between 1938 and 1939, this airfield served as Belfast's primary civilian airport. During World War II, the Royal Navy requisitioned the site. Although Nutts Corner, a former RAF base, later became Belfast's main airport, Shorts continued to utilize Sydenham until it ceased full aircraft production. Nutts Corner itself was replaced by Aldergrove (now Belfast International Airport) in 1963. In 1983, responding to airline and customer interest, the airfield reopened for commercial flights under the name Belfast Harbour Airport, later renamed Belfast City Airport (BCA), now known as George Best Belfast City Airport. Following substantial investment, Bombardier sold BCA for £35 million in 2003.

Bombardier Ownership

The company reverted to the name Short Brothers in 1977 and transitioned into a public limited company in 1984 as part of privatisation preparations. On 7 June 1989, the government announced the sale of Shorts to Bombardier for £30 million. Chancellor John Major insisted that the government write off £390 million of accumulated losses and inject an additional £390 million to recapitalise the business and fund ongoing losses, investments, and training. Bombardier outbid General Electric Company and Fokker for the acquisition; Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm had withdrawn prior to final offers. The transaction was completed on 4 October 1989.

By 1993, under chairman Roy McNulty, Bombardier Shorts partnered with Thomson-CSF to establish Shorts Missile Systems, a joint venture focused on designing very short-range air defence missiles for the UK Ministry of Defence and international armed forces. This collaboration drew on expertise developed since the 1950s. In 2000, Thomson-CSF acquired Bombardier's shareholding entirely and rebranded the company as Thales Air Defence in 2001.

Spirit AeroSystems

On 31 October 2019, Bombardier revealed its intention to divest its aerostructures division to Spirit AeroSystems. The transaction was finalized in November 2020 after receiving regulatory clearance and adjusting the sale price in response to the COVID-19 pandemic's impact.

Legacy

In 2025, the Short brothers received recognition as pioneers in aviation with the installation of a Blue Plaque at St Ann's Well Gardens, Hove.

Aircraft

Template:Refimprove section The year indicated in parentheses corresponds to the initial flight date. Early aircraft are identified by the Short sequence or constructor’s number, which should not be confused with designations beginning at S.1 in 1924. Since its integration into Bombardier Aerospace in 1989, the company's emphasis has shifted to aerospace components rather than producing complete aircraft, missiles, or drones.

1900–1909

1910–1919

1920–1929

1930–1939

1940–1949

1950–1959

  • Introduction of the jet-powered bomber: S.42 SA4 Sperrin in 1951
  • Conceptual design only: S.43 SA5
  • Glider project named: S.48 SA9
  • Experimental aircraft: SB1, launched in 1951
  • Subsequent experimental model: Short SB5 in 1952
  • Development of the jet-powered STOL aircraft: Short SB.4 Sherpa, introduced in 1953
  • Introduction of the anti-submarine aircraft: SB6 Seamew, also from 1953
  • Further iterations of the Sealand series: including the III variant, known as SB7 Sealand
  • Vertical takeoff and landing research aircraft: introduced as the Short Brothers SC1 in 1957
  • Participation as subcontractor on the production of the English Electric Canberra
  • Subcontract work on the Bristol Britannia airliner

1960–1989

File:Short tucano t1 zf210 flying arp.jpg
Royal Air Force Short 312 Tucano featuring distinctive livery as the RAF's 2008 display aircraft.

Airships

Missiles

The missile division at Shorts, which later became known as Shorts Missile Systems (operating from 1993 to 2000 before being sold), specialized in the development of surface-to-air missile systems.

Year indicates initial military deployment.

  • Seacat – naval short-range surface-to-air missile system (1962)
  • Tigercat – land-based, trailer-mounted variant of Seacat (1967)
  • Blowpipe – man-portable missile system for infantry use (1975)
  • Javelin – soldier-carried missile, succeeding Blowpipe and preceding Starburst
  • Starburst – man-portable air defense missile introduced in 1989
  • Starstreak – infantry-portable surface-to-air missile system deployed from 1997

Rotorcraft

  • Cierva C.14

UAVs and drones

Experimental and evaluation projects conducted during the 1960s and 1970s included:

Chief test pilots

Template:Refimprove section

Armoured vehicles

  • Shorland Armoured Car
  • Shorland S600

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The supply vessel had previously been torpedoed by the submarine HMS E14 four days earlier and had run aground. Additional information can be found under Short Type 184
  2. ↑ Barnes 1967, p. 113
  3. ↑ Barnes and James 1989, p. 16
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Hanson, Richard. Borstal: Short Brothers.[1] Archived 2 August 2005 at the Wayback Machine Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value). Access date: 15 January 2007.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Cassidy, Brian. Flying Empires: Short "C" class Empire flying boats. Queens Parade Press, 2004. [2] Archived 24 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Access date: 15 January 2007.
  6. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  7. ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  8. ↑ EarlyAviators.com
  9. ↑ EarlyAviators.com
  10. ↑ EarlyAviators.com
  11. ↑ EarlyAviators.com

References

  • Barnes, Christopher H. Shorts Aircraft Since 1900. 2nd revised edition. London: Putnam, 1989. ISBN 0-87021-662-7. https://archive.org/details/shortsaircraftsi0000barn
  • Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects: Jet Fighters Since 1950. 2nd edition. Manchester: Crecy Publishing, 2017. ISBN 978-1-910-80905-1
  • Jackson, A. J. British Civil Aircraft Since 1919 Volume Three. 2nd revised edition. London: Putnam, 1974. ISBN 0-370-10014-X. https://archive.org/details/britishcivilairc0000jack
  • Warner, Guy. "From Bombay to Bombardier: Aircraft Production at Sydenham, Part One." Air Enthusiast, no. 100 (July–August 2002): 13–24. ISSN 0143-5450

Further reading

External links

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