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Avro Manchester

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Avro
IndustryAerospace
Founded1910 in United Kingdom
Headquarters
United Kingdom
ProductsAircraft, including Avro 679 Manchester bomber


This article is about the Second World War bomber. For the First World War biplane, see Avro 533 Manchester.

Template:Infobox aircraft

The Avro 679 Manchester was a British twin-engine heavy bomber designed and constructed by the Avro company in the United Kingdom. Although its production numbers were limited, it served as the precursor to the more renowned and successful four-engine Avro Lancaster, which became one of the most effective strategic bombers during the Second World War.

Avro developed the Manchester to meet the criteria set by the British Air Ministry under Specification P.13/36, which called for a capable medium bomber to equip the Royal Air Force (RAF) and replace earlier twin-engine bombers such as the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Handley Page Hampden, and Vickers Wellington. The aircraft completed its first flight on 25 July 1939 and entered operational squadron service in November 1940, shortly after the war had commenced.

Used by both the RAF and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), the Manchester was ultimately considered unsuccessful, largely due to its problematic Rolls-Royce Vulture engines that were underdeveloped, delivering insufficient power and reliability issues. Production ceased in 1941. The design was subsequently modified into a four-engine heavy bomber powered by Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, which became known as the Lancaster.

Development

The origins of the Manchester trace back to an Avro design created to satisfy the British Air Ministry's Specification P.13/36. This specification was also addressed by Handley Page with their initial design that evolved into the Halifax bomber.[1] Released in May 1936, Specification P.13/36 required a twin-engine monoplane "medium bomber" intended for "worldwide use," capable of performing shallow (30°) dive bombing maneuvers and carrying heavy bomb loads of up to 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) or two 18 in (460 mm) torpedoes.[2][3] The specification initially included provisions for catapult-assisted takeoffs to enable maximum payload carriage; however, this requirement was removed in July 1938.[4] The desired cruising speed was set at a minimum of 275 mph (443 km/h) at an altitude of 15,000 ft (4,600 m).[5] The Air Ministry anticipated an aircraft with weight similar to that specified in B.1/35 (the Vickers Warwick) but smaller and faster.

Avro had initiated work on a related design before receiving an official invitation to tender. Their competitors included Boulton Paul, Bristol, Fairey, Handley Page, and Shorts. Although Vickers had developed their Warwick powered by Napier Sabre engines, they ultimately decided against submitting a tender. Early in 1937, both Avro's design and Handley Page's HP.56 were approved with prototypes ordered; however, by mid-1937, the Air Ministry exercised its option to commission these aircraft "off the drawing board" due to an accelerated RAF expansion anticipating another major European conflict. It was planned that from 1939 onwards, Specification P.13/36 would begin replacing existing RAF medium bombers such as the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Handley Page Hampden, and Vickers Wellington.

The Avro design incorporated the Rolls-Royce Vulture, a 24-cylinder X-block engine formed by pairing two inverted Rolls-Royce Peregrine V-12 cylinder blocks one atop another.[6] Initially rated at 1,760 hp (1,310 kW) when developed in 1935, this engine proved highly unreliable and was subsequently derated to around 1,480–1,500 hp (1,100–1,120 kW). The prototype Manchester L7246 was assembled by Avro’s experimental division at Manchester's Ringway Airport and conducted its maiden flight on 25 July 1939, followed by a second prototype on 26 May 1940.[2][7] Contrary to some claims, Avro selected the Vulture engine independently rather than it being mandated by the Air Ministry; alternative engine configurations considered included twin Bristol Hercules or Bristol Centaurus radial engines.[6][lower-alpha 1] The Handley Page HP.56 was originally intended as a backup design but was redesigned in 1937 for four engines following concerns over Vulture engine reliability.[11][lower-alpha 2]

File:Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1939-1945- Avro 679 Manchester. CH17300.jpg
Avro Manchester Mk I (featuring an added central tail fin)

Although initially designed with a twin-tail arrangement, production Manchester Mk I models incorporated an additional central fin; twenty units were constructed with this configuration. These were followed by the Mk IA, which returned to a twin-fin layout but featured larger and taller fins along with rudders mounted on a newly designed tailplane whose span increased from 22 ft (6.7 m) to 33 ft (10 m). This tail configuration was carried forward into the Lancaster design except for its first prototype—which also had a central fin and was converted from an unfinished Manchester.[12] In total, Avro built 177 Manchesters while Metropolitan-Vickers produced an additional 32 units. Plans for manufacturing at Armstrong Whitworth and Fairey Aviation facilities at Ringway (now known as Manchester Airport) were cancelled; Fairey's order for 150 Manchesters was replaced with Halifax production contracts instead.

Design

File:Avro Manchester Mk I of No. 207 Squadron RAF at Waddington, Lincolnshire, 12 September 1941. CH3879.jpg
Front section of a Manchester Mark I at Waddington, Lincolnshire, displaying the nose with the bomb aimer's window, forward gun turret, and cockpit, September 1941

The Avro Manchester was engineered with a strong emphasis on simplifying both production and maintenance.[13] Its fuselage structure consisted of continuous longitudinal stringers or longerons, over which a flush-riveted aluminium alloy skin was applied to create a sleek external finish.[13] The wing design featured a dual-spar framework with internal ribs fabricated from aluminium alloys; several self-sealing fuel tanks were integrated within the wings to store fuel.[14] The tail assembly mirrored the wing’s construction approach and incorporated twin fins and rudders, enhancing visibility for the dorsal gunner.[15]

Positioned beneath the canopy, the cockpit accommodated both the pilot and the fighting controller, who were granted panoramic visibility. Situated behind the fighting controller was the navigator’s station, which included an astrodome designed to facilitate sextant navigation.[15] The bomb aimer operated from a compartment located in the aircraft’s nose below the forward turret; bomb aiming was conducted using optical sights installed in this section.[16] For extended operations, a rest area was provided just aft of the main cabin to enhance crew comfort.[17]

The landing gear was fully retractable through hydraulic mechanisms, with an auxiliary air system available for emergency operation.[13] Bomb bay doors were also hydraulically controlled and included a safety interlock preventing bomb release when doors were closed.[16] Inside the internal bomb bay—occupying nearly two-thirds of the fuselage underside—bombs were mounted on racks; additionally, other weaponry such as torpedoes could be installed.[16] All fuel storage was confined to wing tanks to maximize space in the fuselage for armament accommodation.[6]

Critical areas of the Manchester received armour protection; the pilot benefited from reinforced armour plating and bullet-resistant glass, while an armoured bulkhead shielded the area behind the navigator.[15] Defensive armament included three hydraulically powered turrets positioned in the nose, rear fuselage, and mid-upper fuselage;[12] although a ventral turret behind the bomb bay was trialled on the second prototype, it was omitted from production models.[lower-alpha 3][6] Crew access to all stations was facilitated by an internal walkway with nearby emergency exits at each position.[18]

Powering the Manchester were two Vulture engines that proved highly unreliable during operational service. Aviation historian Jon Lake remarked on these engines: "The engine made the Manchester mainly notable for its unreliability, poor performance, and general inadequacy to the task at hand," attributing much of the aircraft’s disappointing service record to these mechanical issues.[12]

I was among six original pilots flying with the first Manchester squadron. It was disastrous. While the airframe initially lacked some equipment features, Avro responded well with modifications and upgrades. However, the engines never achieved reliability or sufficient power. We ended up with two extremely unreliable 1,750 hp engines struggling to lift a 50,000-pound aircraft. Ideally, we should have had engines producing around 2,500 hp. Losing one engine meant certain loss; feathering the propeller made no difference—you were going down. I witnessed an engine run-up where two pistons exploded through its side. The original bearings lacked silver as a cost-saving measure and were too soft; bearing failure led to connecting rod collapse and pistons being violently ejected through engine casings—effectively destroying the engine.[19]Template:Fix/category[permanent dead link]

Operational history

File:Avro Manchester.jpg
Avro Manchester Mk IA

The initial production Avro Manchester, designated L7276, was delivered to RAF Boscombe Down on 5 August 1940 to undergo service acceptance trials. By November 1940, the Manchester officially entered operational use with the re-established No. 207 Squadron within RAF Bomber Command. The aircraft successfully completed all acceptance evaluations by 21 December 1940, and by year-end, No. 207 Squadron operated at least eight Manchesters. The bomber's inaugural combat sortie took place during the night of 24–25 February 1941, targeting the French port of Brest. On 13 March 1941, L7319 became the first Manchester to be lost to enemy fire.

A temporary grounding of all Manchesters occurred on 13 April 1941 after an unexpectedly high incidence of engine bearing failures was detected. A subsequent suspension followed on 16 June 1941 due to recurring engine complications. These reliability issues with the Vulture engines compelled units to revert to older aircraft such as the Hampden for operational missions. When flights resumed in August 1941, crews encountered additional problems including severe tail flutter, hydraulic system malfunctions, and defective propeller feathering mechanisms. Production of the Manchester ceased in November 1941 after a total of 202 units had been manufactured. The type was distributed among eight bomber squadrons and also served in two other squadrons as well as within RAF Coastal Command.

File:Inside 207 Squadron Avro Manchester WWII IWM CH 3884.jpg
Interior view of a Manchester MK I

Despite Avro implementing modifications to mitigate some technical shortcomings, squadron strength remained depleted, limiting Bomber Command's ability to deploy substantial numbers of Manchesters for large-scale bombing raids. For example, during the Berlin raid on 7 November 1941, only 15 Manchesters participated out of a total force exceeding 400 bombers. On 3 March 1942, Manchesters accounted for 25 out of nearly 200 bombers attacking a Renault factory near Paris. Furthermore, during the first mass bombing raid involving over a thousand aircraft on Cologne on 30 May 1942, 35 Manchesters were included among the total of 1,047 bombers deployed. Flying Officer Leslie Manser was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his valor while piloting Manchester L7301 from 50 Squadron during this Cologne operation.

The Mk III Manchester, bearing serial number BT308 and taking flight for the first time on 9 January 1941, effectively represented the prototype Lancaster. It featured an extended wingspan equipped with four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines housed in newly designed unitized nacelles—originally developed by Rolls-Royce for the Merlin-powered Beaufighter II. This version initially retained the Manchester I’s triple fin configuration with twin outboard rudders; however, the central fin lacked movable control surfaces. Immediately following its maiden flight, BT308 was christened "Lancaster." The second Lancaster prototype, DG595, incorporated the enlarged twin fins and rudders characteristic of the Manchester IA. While production of the Manchester continued through November that year, some aircraft still under construction were completed as Lancasters instead.

Throughout its service with Bomber Command, the fleet of 193 operational Manchesters conducted a total of 1,269 sorties, delivering approximately 1,826 tons (1,657 tonnes) of ordnance and suffering losses of 78 aircraft in combat. The final operational mission occurred against Bremen on 25 June 1942. Additionally, there were 45 non-combat losses, with engine failures accounting for about 30 of these incidents. By mid-1942, the Manchester was phased out from frontline duties in favor of more capable bombers. Its last function within RAF service was as a training platform to facilitate crew conversion to Lancaster bombers due to their similar fuselage layouts and crew arrangements. The type remained in training use until its complete retirement in 1943.

Variants

Manchester L7246
The initial prototype originally featured a twin tail design. Due to insufficient directional control, a third fin was added later. It was converted into a training aircraft in November 1942.
Manchester L7247
This second prototype, which first flew on 26 May 1940, was equipped with armament and subsequently repurposed as a trainer in October 1941.
Manchester I
The initial production model had a 90 ft wingspan and a 28 ft twin tail, with an additional central fin added later; 20 units of this type were manufactured.[lower-alpha 4]
Manchester IA
The principal production variant featured a 90 ft wingspan, twin tail with an enlarged 33 ft tailplane, along with taller fins and rudders.
Manchester IB
Similar to the Manchester IA but incorporated thinner fuselage skin.
Manchester IC
Based on the Manchester IB but powered by two Bristol Centaurus engines producing 2,520 hp each. Only one airframe was fitted with these engines, but it never flew.[lower-alpha 5]
Manchester II
This variant was like the Manchester IB but had a larger wing spanning 95 ft.
Manchester IIA
Equivalent to the Manchester II but intended to use two Bristol Centaurus engines. None were constructed.
Manchester III BT308
Powered by four Merlin engines and featuring an extended wingspan, this version retained the three fins and rudders of the Manchester I. It served as the prototype for the subsequent Avro Lancaster.[lower-alpha 6]

Orders and production

  • Avro received orders for two prototypes under specification P.13/36, which were constructed at Ringway.
  • A contract for producing 200 Manchesters was awarded to Avro for assembly at Chadderton; after manufacturing 157 units delivered between August 1940 and November 1941, production shifted to Lancaster I models.
  • Fairey was contracted to build 150 Manchesters at Ringway; however, this order was cancelled.
  • Metropolitan-Vickers at Trafford Park secured a contract for 200 Manchesters; after completing 43 aircraft delivered from March 1941 to March 1942, production switched to Lancaster I models. Notably, the first dozen aircraft on this line were destroyed during a German air raid on 23 December 1940 before completion and thus are excluded from total production figures.
  • Armstrong-Whitworth received an order for 150 Manchesters which was subsequently cancelled.

Overall, two prototypes and 200 production Manchesters were manufactured before all production lines transitioned to producing the four-engine Lancaster.

Operators

File:Flag of Australia (converted).svg Australia
File:Canadian Red Ensign (1921–1957).svg Canada
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  • Royal Air Force
    • No. 49 Squadron RAF based at RAF Scampton (April–June 1942)
    • No. 50 Squadron RAF stationed at RAF Skellingthorpe (April–June 1942)
    • No. 61 Squadron RAF operating from RAF Hemswell (June 1941–June 1942)
    • No. 83 Squadron RAF at RAF Scampton (December 1941–June 1942)
    • No. 97 Squadron RAF located at RAF Waddington then RAF Coningsby (February 1941–February 1942)
    • No. 106 Squadron RAF based at RAF Coningsby (February–June 1942)
    • No. 207 Squadron RAF operating from RAF Waddington then RAF Bottesford (November 1940–March 1942)
    • No. 25 Operational Training Unit at RAF Finningley
    • No. 44 Conversion Flight
    • No. 1485 Flight RAF
    • No. 1654 Heavy Conversion Unit
    • No. 1656 Heavy Conversion Unit
    • No. 1660 Heavy Conversion Unit
    • No. 1668 Heavy Conversion Unit
    • Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment
    • Torpedo Development Unit based at RAF Gosport

Specifications (Manchester Mk I)

Orthographic projection of the Avro Manchester Mk I, including profile detail of Mk.IA
Orthographic projection of the Avro Manchester Mk I, including profile detail of Mk.IA

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See also

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Notes

  1. ↑ Historian Francis Mason suggested that engine choice was part of the specification as did author Chaz Bowyer.[5][8] However, Buttler notes that prototypes with both Hercules and Vulture engines were specified by the Ministry while Sinnott disputes this interpretation.[9][10]
  2. ↑ The abandoned HP.56 project eventually evolved into the four-engine HP.57 that entered service as the Handley Page Halifax—a markedly more successful aircraft than the Manchester.
  3. ↑ Enemy pilots quickly identified this ventral blind spot on both the Manchester and its successor, the Lancaster, often exploiting it during attacks.[6]
  4. ↑ Around November 1939, these designations were used internally by Avro; the Air Ministry only distinguished between early triple-fin and later twin-fin versions using 'Mk I' and 'Mk IA'.
  5. ↑ Development of the Centaurus engine was paused to allow Bristol to focus on the Hercules engine.
  6. ↑ Avro initially proposed using four Rolls-Royce Merlins in September 1939. Alternative engine configurations considered included two Napier Sabres (2,100 hp each), two Bristol Hercules (conceptualized in 1940), and two Bristol Pegasus engines (also conceptual only in 1940).Template:Fix/category[citation needed]

Citations

  1. ↑ Lake 2002, pp. 89–90.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Lewis 1974, p. 299.
  3. ↑ Bowyer 1974, p. 25.
  4. ↑ Bowyer 1974, p. 29.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mason 1994, p. 323.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Bowyer 1974, p. 26.
  7. ↑ Bowyer 1974, pp. 28–29.
  8. ↑ Bowyer 1974, pp. 25–26.
  9. ↑ Buttler, 2004 p102-103
  10. ↑ Sinnott 2001, pp. 165–171.
  11. ↑ Lake 2002, p. 90.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Lake 2002, p. 89.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Flight 1942, p. 555.
  14. ↑ Flight 1942, pp. 555–556.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Flight 1942, p. 556.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Flight 1942, p. 557.
  17. ↑ Bowyer 1974, p. 28.
  18. ↑ Flight 1942, pp. 556–557.
  19. ↑ "Before the Lancs", Early Days, Personal Stories, The Bomber Command Association

Bibliography

  • Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
  • Bowyer, Chaz. Aircraft Profile No. 260: Avro Manchester. Windsor, UK: Profile Publications, 1974.
  • Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects: Fighters and Bombers 1935–1950. Hickley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-8578-0179-8.
  • Jackson, A.J. Avro Aircraft since 1908. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, Second edition, 1990. ISBN 0-85177-834-8.
  • Lake, Jon. The Great Book of Bombers: The World's Most Significant Bombers from World War I to Today. Zenith Imprint, 2002. ISBN 0-76031-347-4.
  • Lewis, Peter. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam, Second edition, 1974. ISBN 0-37010-040-9.
  • "Manchesters". Aeromilitaria No. 2. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd., 1990.
  • Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. ISBN 0-85177-861-5.
  • Sinnott, Colin. The RAF and Aircraft Design 1923–1939: Air Staff Operational Requirements (Studies in Air Power). London: Frank Cass, 2001. ISBN 978-0-7146-5158-3.
  • Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57. London: Putnam, First edition, 1957. ISBN 0-37000-101-X.

Further reading

  • Chant, Christopher. Lancaster: The History of Britain's Most Renowned World War II Bomber. Bath, UK: Parragon, 2003. ISBN 0-75258-769-2.
  • Holmes, Harry. Avro: The Story of an Aircraft Manufacturer. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press Ltd, Second edition, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.
  • Holmes, Harry. Avro Lancaster (Combat Legend series). Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 2002. ISBN 1-84037-376-8.
  • Jackson, Robert. Aircraft of World War II. Enderby, UK: Silverdale Books, 2006. ISBN 1-85605-751-8.
  • Kirby, Robert. Avro Manchester: The Story Behind the Manchester. Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85780-028-1.
  • Mackay, R.S.G. Lancaster in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1982. ISBN 0-89747-130-X.

External links

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