Vulcan B.1

Avro Vulcan

Company type	Military aircraft
Industry	Aerospace
Founded	April 1947 (1947-04)
Founder	A.V. Roe and Company (Avro)
Defunct	1984 (1984)
Fate	Retired from service
Headquarters	United Kingdom , United Kingdom
Area served	Royal Air Force
Key people	Roy Chadwick, Stuart Davies, Sir William Farren
Products	Strategic bomber aircraft
Parent	Hawker Siddeley (from July 1963)

Overview

The Avro Vulcan—later known as the Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963 onward—was a jet-powered, tailless, delta-wing strategic bomber operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF) between 1956 and 1984. Developed by A.V. Roe and Company (commonly called Avro), the Vulcan was designed in response to Specification B.35/46. Among the trio of V bomber aircraft produced, the Vulcan stood out as the most technologically sophisticated and consequently the most challenging to develop. To validate and perfect its delta-wing concept, several smaller-scale prototypes known as Avro 707s were constructed.

The initial Vulcan B.1 model entered RAF service in 1956, with deliveries of the enhanced Vulcan B.2 commencing in 1960. The B.2 variant incorporated more powerful engines, an expanded wing area, upgraded electrical systems, and advanced electronic countermeasure capabilities. A significant number were also modified to carry the Blue Steel missile. As a core component of the V-force, the Vulcan served as the United Kingdom's primary airborne nuclear deterrent throughout much of the Cold War. While primarily equipped for nuclear missions, it was also capable of conventional bombing operations, notably demonstrated during Operation Black Buck in the 1982 Falklands War between Britain and Argentina.

Initially, the Vulcan lacked defensive armaments, depending on its ability to fly at high altitudes and speeds to avoid enemy interceptors. Starting around 1960, electronic countermeasures were introduced on both the B.1 (specifically the B.1A) and B.2 models. In the mid-1960s, operational tactics shifted towards low-level flight profiles. During the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance roles and redesignated as B.2 (MRR). Toward the end of their operational life, six Vulcans were converted into K.2 tanker variants to perform aerial refuelling duties.

Following their retirement from active RAF service, one Vulcan B.2 aircraft—XH558, dubbed The Spirit of Great Britain—was restored for participation in display flights and air shows. Additionally, two other B.2s, XL426 and XM655, have been preserved in taxiable condition for ground demonstrations. The final flight of XH558 occurred in October 2015; it remains maintained for taxiing purposes. Another example, XM612, is exhibited at the Norwich Aviation Museum.

Origins

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Silhouettes comparing an early Avro 698 concept with the cancelled Avro 710

The Vulcan, along with the other V bombers, originated from Britain's early atomic weapons programme and its strategic nuclear deterrence policies. The British atomic bomb initiative commenced following the issuance of Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 in August 1946. This anticipated a government decision in January 1947 to approve research and development on nuclear arms, despite the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) restricting the sharing of atomic knowledge, even among former Manhattan Project allies. OR.1001 specified a weapon no longer than 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m), with a diameter under 5 ft (1.5 m), and weighing less than 10,000 lb (4,500 kg). The bomb was designed for deployment at altitudes between 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m).

In January 1947, the Ministry of Supply issued Specification B.35/46 to British aircraft manufacturers to fulfill Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229. This called for a medium-range land-based bomber capable of delivering a single 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to targets up to 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) from potentially any global base. The aircraft was expected to cruise at around 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes between 35,000 and 50,000 ft (11,000 and 15,000 m). Maximum takeoff weight was limited to 100,000 lb (45,000 kg), with an alternative payload capacity of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) for conventional bombs. A related specification, OR.230, demanded a long-range bomber with a radius of action near 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km) and a fully loaded weight up to 200,000 lb (91,000 kg), but this was deemed overly ambitious. Six companies, including Avro, submitted proposals responding to these requirements.

Avro began work on Specification B.35/46 after receiving it by the end of April 1947, under the leadership of technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies. Their project was designated Avro 698. It quickly became clear that traditional aircraft designs could not meet the demanding criteria. Neither the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) nor American sources provided valuable insights into high-speed flight at that time. Avro’s team noted that Alexander Lippisch had previously designed a delta-wing fighter and considered adopting this delta-wing configuration for their bomber concept. They calculated that a conventional aircraft with a 45° swept wing would result in double the permitted weight. Recognizing that swept wings enhance longitudinal stability, they eliminated the tail assembly (empennage) and its supporting fuselage structure, transforming the design into a swept-back flying wing featuring only a minimal forward fuselage and vertical stabilizers at each wingtip. This approach reduced estimated weight to just 50% above the target limit. By shortening the wingspan while preserving wing area through filling in between wingtips, the delta shape emerged, allowing compliance with specifications. Although Lippisch is often credited as the delta wing pioneer, Chadwick’s group developed their design through independent reasoning. The initial layout included four large turbojets arranged in two pairs embedded within the wings along the centerline, flanked by two bomb bays.

In August 1947, Chadwick tragically died in a crash involving the Avro Tudor 2 prototype; Sir William Farren succeeded him as technical director. Due to reductions in wing thickness, integrating split bomb bays and stacked engines became unfeasible, so engine placement shifted to side-by-side pairs flanking a single bomb bay within an expanded fuselage. Wingtip fins were replaced by one central vertical fin on the aircraft’s tailline. Meanwhile, rival manufacturer Handley Page secured a prototype contract for its crescent-winged HP.80 design under Specification B.35/46 in November 1947. Although Avro’s design was regarded as superior technically, contract approval was delayed pending thorough evaluation of its merits. Ultimately, authorization for constructing two Avro 698 prototypes was granted in January 1948.

As a precaution against potential failure of these innovative designs, Short Brothers received an order for their SA.4 prototype under Specification B.14/46—a less demanding requirement—but this aircraft, later named Sperrin, was ultimately not needed. In April 1948, Vickers-Armstrongs also obtained permission to proceed with their Type 660 model; while it did not fully meet B.35/46 standards, its conventional design allowed earlier availability and it entered service as the Vickers Valiant.

Avro 707 and Avro 710

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The prototype Vulcans (VX777 front, VX770 rear) accompanied by four Avro 707s at the Farnborough Air Show in September 1953: The Vulcan’s prominent delta wing earned it the affectionate moniker "Tin Triangle".

Since Avro lacked prior experience with delta wing designs, the company developed two smaller experimental aircraft derived from the 698: the one-third scale model 707 to evaluate low-speed characteristics, and the half-scale model 710 intended for high-speed performance assessment. Two units of each model were commissioned initially. However, the 710 project was terminated due to concerns over development delays; instead, a high-speed version of the 707, designated 707A, was created. The first 707, serial VX784, took flight in September 1949 but tragically crashed later that month, resulting in the death of Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE, chief test pilot at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment. The second low-speed variant, VX790, constructed using the incomplete nose section of the 707A—which featured an ejection seat—and renamed 707B, flew in September 1950 with Avro test pilot Wing Commander Roland "Roly" Falk at the controls. The high-speed model 707A, serial WD280, followed in July 1951.

Despite setbacks delaying the 707 program, neither the 707B nor the 707A made a significant impact on the fundamental design of the 698. Nevertheless, testing did reveal the necessity to lengthen the nosewheel strut to achieve a ground angle of incidence of 3.5°, optimizing takeoff attitude. Both variants validated the delta wing concept and bolstered confidence in its aerodynamic planform. Additional aircraft included a second 707A (WZ736) and a two-seat 707C (WZ744); however, these did not contribute to further development of the 698.

First prototype VX770 and name

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Comparison of Vulcan wing configurations

Wind tunnel experiments conducted at RAE Farnborough had a greater influence on refining the 698’s design than the Avro 707 tests. These studies led to a redesigned wing featuring a cranked and drooped leading edge combined with vortex generators to mitigate compressibility drag that would otherwise limit top speed. This updated "phase 2" wing was initially trialed on Avro 707A WD480 but came too late for integration into both prototype 698s or the first three B.1 production aircraft prior to their maiden flights; these early B.1s were subsequently retrofitted with this wing design.

The first prototype of the 698 series, VX770—painted gloss white and equipped with a pure delta wing—undertook its inaugural flight on 30 August 1952 with Roly Falk piloting solo. Powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines each delivering 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust (as its intended Bristol Olympus engines were unavailable), VX770 featured fuselage fuel tanks but lacked wing tanks; thus, additional fuel capacity was temporarily housed in the bomb bay. This prototype was fitted only with a pilot’s ejection seat and conventional control wheel. The following month at the Society of British Aircraft Constructors’ Farnborough Air Show in 1952, Falk showcased VX770 performing an almost vertical bank maneuver.

Following its public display at Farnborough, speculation arose regarding an official name for the Avro 698. Avro advocated for "Ottawa," reflecting its ties to Avro Canada and aligning with RAF tradition of naming bombers after inland British Commonwealth towns or industrial centers. Meanwhile, Flight magazine proposed "Albion" after dismissing alternatives such as "Avenger," "Apollo," and "Assegai." Ultimately, the Chief of the Air Staff favored a V-class bomber designation; consequently, the Air Council announced that the aircraft would be named Vulcan, invoking the Roman god associated with fire and destruction.

In January 1953, VX770 was grounded to undergo modifications including installation of wing fuel tanks and replacement of Avon engines with Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire units rated at 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust among other system upgrades; it resumed flight operations by July that year.

Beginning in 1957, VX770 served as a flying testbed for the Rolls-Royce Conway bypass turbofan engine until it crashed during an aerial demonstration at RAF Syerston in September 1958.

Second prototype VX777

The second prototype, designated VX777, took to the skies for the first time on 3 September 1953. Closer in design to the production version, it was extended to incorporate a longer nose landing gear strut, which increased the wing's angle of attack and consequently reduced the take-off distance. This model included a transparent bomb-aiming blister beneath the cockpit and was powered by Bristol Olympus 100 engines delivering 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) of thrust. Following Falk's recommendation, the traditional control wheel was replaced with a fighter-style control stick. Similar to VX770, VX777 retained the original wing featuring straight leading edges. At the 1953 Farnborough Air Show, VX777 flew in formation alongside the initial prototype VX770 and four Avro 707 aircraft. During July 1954 testing at Farnborough, VX777 suffered significant damage due to a hard landing but was subsequently repaired and upgraded with Olympus 101 engines producing 11,000 lbf (49 kN) of thrust before continuing trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down.Template:Fix/category

Testing and type certification

During high-speed and high-altitude flight envelope evaluations at the A&AEE, VX777 exhibited mild buffeting along with other adverse handling traits when nearing its maximum Mach number, including a concerning tendency to enter an uncontrollable dive known as Mach tuck. These characteristics were deemed unsuitable for an unarmed bomber. The introduction of the phase 2 wing eliminated buffeting issues, while an automatic mach trimmer counteracted the high-speed dive by applying up-elevator input as velocity approached critical levels. This corrective force exceeded what was necessary to prevent the dive, resulting in a requirement to push rather than pull on the control column to sustain level flight as speed increased. This artificial pitch-up effect improved handling by making the Vulcan respond more similarly to conventional aircraft at higher speeds.

The first production B.1 aircraft, XA889, conducted its maiden flight in February 1955 equipped with the original wing and entered testing by June of that year. In September 1955, Falk piloted the second production B.1 XA890—which had remained stationed at Woodford as part of the Ministry of Supply's Air Fleet for radio trials—and impressed spectators at the Farnborough Air Show by performing a barrel roll during his second flypast near the SBAC president's tent. After two days of demonstration flights, he was summoned by military and civil aviation officials and instructed to cease this "dangerous" manoeuvre. Later outfitted with a phase 2 wing, XA889 was delivered in March 1956 to the A&AEE for testing prior to receiving the type’s initial Certificate of Airworthiness in April.

(In 1956, VX777 underwent modifications incorporating an even larger phase 2(C) wing and Olympus 104 engines, transforming it into the aerodynamic prototype for the Vulcan B.2.)Template:Fix/category

Vulcan B.1 and B.1A

The initial batch of 15 production B.1 models was equipped with Olympus 101 engines. A significant number of these early aircraft, often left in their natural metal finish, remained under the ownership of the Ministry of Supply for use in testing and development activities. Those that were introduced into RAF service were assigned to No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), with the first delivery occurring in July 1956. Subsequently, aircraft featuring an anti-flash white paint scheme and powered by Olympus 102 engines, delivering 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust, began entering squadron service by July 1957. These Olympus 102 engines were later upgraded during overhauls to the Olympus 104 standard, increasing thrust to 13,500 lbf (60 kN).

Although converting B.1s into B.2s was evaluated, the expenses involved led to its rejection. To prolong the operational lifespan of the B.1, Armstrong Whitworth refurbished 28 surviving aircraft—equipped with Olympus 102/104 engines—between 1959 and 1963 to meet the B.1A standard. These upgrades incorporated elements from the B.2 variant, such as electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, in-flight refuelling receiving apparatus, and UHF radio communications. However, the B.1A models were not structurally reinforced for low-level flight operations and were all retired by 1968.

Vulcan B.2

As early as 1952, Bristol Aero Engines had initiated development on the BOl.6 (Olympus 6) engine variant rated at 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust, but fitting this engine to the B.1 would have reintroduced wing buffet issues necessitating further wing redesign.

In May 1956, a decision was made to advance with the development of the Vulcan B.2 series under Avro’s chief designer Roy Ewans. The first B.2 was projected to be approximately the 45th unit out of an order for 99 aircraft. This model was intended to operate at higher altitudes over targets and offer enhanced operational versatility through in-flight refuelling capabilities supported by tanker aircraft. The growing complexity of Soviet air defense systems required installation of advanced electronic countermeasures (ECM), while vulnerability was mitigated by incorporating the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile, which was under development at that time. To facilitate these advancements, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was modified with a larger and thinner phase-2C wing design, improved flight control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines; it conducted its maiden flight in this configuration in August 1957. Several Vulcan B.1s served as testbeds for B.2 developments: XA891 for BOl.6 (later Olympus 200) engine trials; XA893 for a new AC electrical system; XA895 for ECM including tail cone jammers and a tail warning radar; and XA903 for Blue Steel missile integration.

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Avro Vulcan B.2 XH533 during flight at Farnborough in 1958

The first production B.2 aircraft and the forty-sixth overall Vulcan—XH533—undertook its initial flight in September 1958 powered by Olympus 200 engines, preceding the final B.1 delivery (XH532) by six months in March 1959. The subsequent B.2 model XH534 flew in January of the following year; equipped with production Olympus 201 engines delivering 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust, it closely represented a production standard aircraft featuring an in-flight refuelling probe and an enlarged ECM tail cone housing. Early B.2 units sometimes lacked these probes and ECM tail cones but were retrofitted accordingly later on. The first ten B.2s retained slender engine air intakes reminiscent of their B.1 origins; anticipating more powerful engines, deeper air intakes were introduced starting with the eleventh aircraft (XH557) and subsequent builds. Numerous early examples were held for testing purposes; notably, XH558—the twelfth production B.2—was delivered to RAF service in July 1960 and coincidentally became the final Vulcan retired from RAF service in 1992.

The twenty-sixth B.2 produced—XL317—was part of a production batch ordered in February 1956 and marked the first Vulcan outside development prototypes capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile; a total of thirty-three aircraft were delivered with this capability. After cancellation of Blue Steel Mk.2 in favor of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile in December 1959, modifications were made to accommodate Skybolt missiles under each wing; despite Skybolt’s cancellation in November1962, many airframes were delivered or retrofitted with "Skybolt" fairings ("blisters"). Later versions came equipped with Olympus301 engines rated at 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust; two earlier aircraft (XH557 and XJ784) were re-engined for testing purposes along with seven more conversions around1963.

The final Vulcan B.2 unit—XM657—was delivered in1965 and remained operational until1984. Throughout its service life, continual upgrades enhanced this variant including rapid engine start systems, fuel tanks within bomb bays, structural reinforcement of wings enabling low-level flight tactics introduced during the mid-1960s, improved navigation equipment including terrain-following radar, standardization on a common armament (WE.177), and sophisticated ECM systems. Nine units underwent conversion for maritime radar reconnaissance roles, while six served as airborne refuelling tankers. Avro demonstrated an enhanced bomb rack assembly designed to carry up to thirty one-thousand-pound bombs—an increase from twenty-one—but this modification was never adopted. During the Falklands conflict in1982,the updated B.2 executed a bombing mission against Port Stanley Airport, covering approximately4,000mi (6,437km).

Proposed projects and discontinued plans

Avro Type 718

In 1951, Avro put forward the Type 718 concept, a delta-winged military transport derived from the Type 698, intended to accommodate either 80 soldiers or 110 passengers. This aircraft was designed to be powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines.

Avro Atlantic

Main article: Avro Atlantic

The Avro Type 722 Atlantic was proposed in 1952 and publicly announced in June 1953 as a delta-wing airliner capable of carrying 120 passengers, also based on the Type 698 platform.

Avro Type 732

Introduced in 1956, the Avro 732 was envisioned as a supersonic evolution of the Vulcan bomber, equipped with eight de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. Unlike the earlier Avro 721 low-altitude bomber concept from 1952 or the Avro 730 supersonic canard bomber developed in stainless steel during 1954 (which was cancelled in 1957 prior to prototype completion), the Type 732 retained clear design elements from the Vulcan lineage.

Vulcan Phase 6 (Vulcan B.3)

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Silhouette depicting the original Vulcan B.3 patrol missile carrier study

In 1960, the Air Staff commissioned Avro to conduct a study for a patrol missile carrier capable of deploying up to six Skybolt missiles with an endurance of approximately twelve hours. Avro’s proposal submitted in May 1960 outlined the Phase 6 Vulcan, which would have become the Vulcan B.3 variant. This design featured an expanded wing span of 121 ft (37 m) to increase fuel storage, additional tanks integrated into a dorsal spine, a reinforced main landing gear to support a maximum takeoff weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg), and Olympus 301 engines equipped with afterburners delivering 30,000 lbf (130 kN) thrust. A revised October 1960 proposal included a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) fuselage extension forward, providing space for six crew members seated on forward-facing ejection seats—including a relief pilot—and incorporated aft-fan variants of the Olympus 301 engines.

Fighter-support Vulcan

Main article: Airborne aircraft carrier

Following the cancellation of Skybolt and in response to enhanced Soviet air defenses, Avro suggested modifying the Vulcan to carry three Folland Gnat fighters mounted beneath its wings. These Gnats were intended to be deployed over hostile airspace to provide fighter escort. After completing their mission, they were expected either to land within friendly zones or return to refuel mid-air using a specialized refueling drogue fitted to the Vulcan.

Export offers

Several nations showed interest in acquiring Vulcans; however, similar to the other V-bomber models, no international sales were finalized.

Australia

By 1954, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) had already identified that the English Electric Canberra was approaching obsolescence. Various potential successors were evaluated, including the Boeing B-47E, Handley-Page Victor, and Vulcan.

The demand for a Canberra replacement intensified politically by 1962, coinciding with the emergence of nimble, supersonic bombers and strategic strike aircraft like the North American A-5 Vigilante, BAC TSR-2, and General Dynamics F-111. Had Australia proceeded with an early order of the TSR-2, several V-bombers such as Vulcans might have been temporarily allocated to the RAAF; nevertheless, the F-111C was ultimately selected. (Following the TSR-2 cancellation, the UK government nearly adopted a similar approach by considering the purchase of the F-111K.)

Argentina

In the early 1980s, Argentina approached British authorities with a request to acquire multiple Vulcan aircraft. In September 1981, an application sought prompt access to a “suitable aircraft.” Although British ministers hesitated, they consented to export a single unit but made clear that approval for additional sales had not been granted. Correspondence from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to the Ministry of Defence in January 1982 expressed skepticism about further sales without confirming Argentina’s genuine interest: “On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands.” Less than three months later, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, prompting a swift British embargo on military equipment exports.

Design

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Avro Vulcan XH558 displayed at the Duxford Airshow in 2012

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Bomb bay compartment

Overview

Although the airframe featured a distinctive and unconventional design, its construction followed conventional principles. The majority of the structure, excluding the most heavily stressed areas, was produced using standard light alloy grades. The airframe was divided into several primary sections: the centre section, a rectangular box housing the bomb bay and engine compartments, framed by the front and rear spars and wing transport joints; the intakes along with the central fuselage; the forward fuselage containing the pressurized cabin; the nose section; the outer wings; leading edges; wing trailing edges and rear fuselage; plus a single swept tail fin equipped with one rudder located on its trailing edge.

The pressure cabin accommodated a crew of five arranged on two levels. The pilot and co-pilot occupied Martin-Baker 3K (3KS on the B.2 variant) ejection seats, while on the lower deck, the navigator radar, navigator plotter, and air electronics officer (AEO) faced backward and exited through the main entrance door. Initially, the B35/46 specification included a jettisonable crew compartment, but this feature was later removed from the requirements. The escape system for the rear crew frequently sparked debate, notably when a feasible retrofit plan was declined. A basic sixth seat was positioned ahead of the navigator radar for an extra crew member; in addition, the B.2 model incorporated a seventh seat opposite this sixth position and in front of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer's station could be equipped with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight. In many B.2 aircraft, this compartment contained a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera used to evaluate simulated low-altitude bombing runs.

Fuel storage comprised 14 bag tanks: four located in the centre fuselage above and behind the nosewheel bay, with five tanks installed in each outer wing. These tanks were divided into four groups of nearly equal capacity, each typically supplying its corresponding engine, although cross-feeding between tanks was feasible. The aircraft's centre of gravity was maintained automatically by electric timers that controlled booster pump sequencing across the tanks. B.2 variants could also be fitted with one or two additional fuel tanks within the bomb bay.

Although designed well before considerations such as reduced radar cross-section or other stealth features were introduced, a 1957 RAE technical note observed that among all aircraft examined to that date, the Vulcan presented by far the simplest radar-reflective profile due to its shape; only one or two components significantly contributed to radar echoes from any angle, unlike most other aircraft which had three or more contributors. Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith highlighted that "owing to its all-wing configuration, small vertical fin, and recessed engines, at certain angles [the Avro Vulcan] was nearly invisible to radar." Radar system experts Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan also identified the Vulcan's design as minimizing radar returns. Aviation author Doug Richardson acknowledged that while the Vulcan was challenging to detect on radar, this did not necessarily translate into a substantial military benefit. Conversely, electronic warfare specialist and former Vulcan AEO Dr Alfred Price asserted that "the Vulcan [...] possessed a large radar signature."

Colour schemes

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Overhead perspective of a Vulcan B.2 exhibiting late RAF livery, displayed statically at RAF Mildenhall in 1984

The initial two Vulcan prototypes were coated in a glossy white finish. Early production Vulcan B.1 models emerged from the factory with an unpainted natural metal exterior; their nose radomes were divided into two halves, the forward section painted black and the rear section silver. Operational Vulcan B.1 aircraft bore an anti-flash white coating accompanied by RAF "type D" roundels. The frontline Vulcan B.1A and B.2 variants maintained a similar scheme but featured paler roundels.

When low-level attack tactics were introduced in the mid-1960s, the B.1A and B.2 models adopted an upper surface camouflage pattern of glossy sea grey medium and dark green disruptive shapes, paired with white undersides and "type D" roundels. (The final 13 Vulcan B.2s, starting from serial XM645, were delivered from the factory with this scheme). During the mid-1970s, Vulcan B.2s transitioned to a matte camouflage finish with light aircraft grey undersides and low-visibility roundels, while B.2(MRR) versions featured a similar glossy pattern but without black paint on the forward radome halves. From 1979 onward, ten Vulcans received a wrap-around camouflage combining dark sea grey and dark green, following observations during Red Flag exercises in the United States where defending SAM units noted that the grey-painted undersides became conspicuous against terrain when banking steeply.

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Rear crew stations within an Avro Vulcan

Avionics

The initial radio equipment fitted to the Vulcan B.1 included two 10-channel Very High Frequency (VHF) transceivers (models TR-1985/TR-1986) alongside an STR-18, a 24-channel High Frequency (HF) transceiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A added an Ultra High Frequency (UHF) transceiver (ARC-52). The first B.2 radios were broadly similar to those of the B.1A, eventually incorporating the ARC-52 UHF set, a V/UHF transceiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband HF transmitter-receiver (Collins 618T).

Navigation and bombing systems consisted of an H2S Mk9 radar paired with a Mark 1 navigation bombing computer. Mark 2 aircraft upgraded to a navigation bombing computer Mk2 variant, which extended operational altitude capability up to 60,000 ft but raised minimum altitude limits to 17,200 ft due to modifications in the synchro system. When transitioning to low-altitude missions, the original ballistic Mk1 system was reinstalled to restore altitude operation between 7,200 ft and 50,000 ft.

Additional navigational aids encompassed a Marconi radio compass (automatic direction finder or ADF), GEE Mk3 navigation system, Green Satin Doppler radar for ground speed and drift angle calculations, radio and radar altimeters, as well as an instrument landing system. TACAN replaced GEE on the B.1A and B.2 models in 1964; Decca Doppler 72 superseded Green Satin on the B.2 around 1969. A ground position indicator provided continuous positional awareness.

Eventually, Vulcan B.2s were equipped with a free-running dual-gyroscopic heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2 derived from the inertial platform used by the Blue Steel missile when carried. This HRS included a navigator's heading unit enabling precise heading adjustments via autopilot in increments as small as 0.1 degrees. The B.2(MRR) variant was also outfitted with LORAN C navigation equipment.

The original electronic countermeasures suite for both B.1A and B.2 comprised one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive radar warning receiver with four antennas; Red Steer tail warning radar; plus chaff dispensers. Most of this equipment was housed within an elongated tail cone extension, with a flat ECM aerial counterpoise plate mounted between the starboard tailpipes. Subsequent upgrades on the B.2 included replacing one Red Shrimp jammer with an L-band jammer; installation of ARI 18146 X-band jammer replacing Green Palm; improved Red Steer Mk.2; infrared decoy flares; and ARI 18228 PWR system featuring antennas shaping a squared top on the fin.

Controls

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Vulcan B.1 XA890 in its initial silver livery landing at Farnborough in September 1955 following Roly Falk's "aerobatic" demonstration: Notice the lower starboard airbrakes, both inner and outer. The lower outer airbrakes were subsequently removed.

Control of the aircraft was achieved through a fighter-style control stick and rudder bar, which managed the powered flight controls. Each control surface was operated by a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except for the rudder, which utilized two units with one serving as a backup. The system incorporated artificial feel and automatic stabilization via pitch and yaw dampers, complemented by an automatic Mach trimmer.

The flight instrumentation on the B.1 model followed conventional layouts, featuring G4B compasses; Mk.4 artificial horizons; and zero reader flight display instruments. The B.1 was equipped with a Smiths Mk10 autopilot system. In contrast, the B.2 integrated these components into the Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), which included two beam compasses, two director-horizons, and either an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot. Beginning in 1966, B.2 variants were fitted with the ARI 5959 terrain-following radar (TFR) manufactured by General Dynamics, with its output linked to the director-horizons.

Regarding control surfaces, the B.1 featured four inboard elevators and four outboard ailerons. These were replaced on the B.2 by eight elevons. The Vulcan also incorporated six electrically actuated airbrakes with three selectable positions—retracted, medium drag, and high drag—distributed as four on the upper center section and two on the lower wing surface. Initially, four lower airbrakes were installed; however, the two outer ones were removed prior to entering operational service. Additionally, a brake parachute was housed within the tail cone.

Electrical and hydraulic systems

The primary electrical system on the B.1/B.1A operated at 112 V DC, powered by four engine-driven starter-generators rated at 22.5 kW each. Backup electricity was supplied by four 24 V, 40 Ah batteries connected in series to provide 96 V. Secondary electrical supplies included 28 V DC; single-phase 115 V AC at 1600 Hz; and three-phase 115 V AC at 400 Hz, all derived through transformers and inverters from the main power source. The 28 V DC system was supported by an additional single 24 V battery.

For enhanced reliability and efficiency, the B.2’s main electrical configuration transitioned to a three-phase 200 V AC system at 400 Hz, powered by four engine-driven constant-speed alternators rated at 40 kVA each. Engine starting was accomplished via air-starters supplied by a ground-based Palouste compressor. In case of main AC failure, two standby power sources were available: a ram air turbine (RAT) driving a 17 kVA alternator housed under the port wing capable of functioning from high altitudes down to 20,000 ft; and an airborne auxiliary power unit (AAPP), a gas turbine manufactured by Rover located within the starboard wing that could be engaged below 30,000 ft altitude. Secondary electrical outputs included transformer-rectifier units for 28 V DC and rotary frequency converters supplying 115 V single-phase power at 1600 Hz.

The adoption of an AC electrical system marked a considerable advancement. Each powered flying control unit (PFCU) contained a hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor—a configuration now recognized as an electro-hydraulic actuator. Since no manual reversion capability existed, total electrical failure would result in loss of flight control authority. Although standby batteries on the B.1 were intended to sustain approximately twenty minutes of operation, this proved overly optimistic; two aircraft—XA891 and XA908—were lost due to electrical failures.

Hydraulic pressure for raising and lowering the undercarriage and bogie trim; nosewheel centering and steering; wheel braking systems equipped with Maxaret anti-skid units; bomb bay door operation; and (on B.2 models only) AAPP air scoop lowering was supplied by three pumps mounted on engines Nos. 1, 2, and 3 respectively. An electrically driven hydraulic power pack (EHPP) could be engaged to operate bomb doors and recharge brake accumulators. Emergency undercarriage extension was facilitated by a compressed gas system initially using air and later nitrogen as the medium.

Engine

Main article: Rolls-Royce Olympus

File:Royal Air Force Museum Hendon (14195378374).jpg

Wing-integrated air intake designed for the Olympus jet engines

The Rolls-Royce Olympus, initially designated the "Bristol BE.10 Olympus", is a two-spool, axial-flow turbojet engine that powered the Vulcan bomber. Each Vulcan housed four of these engines embedded within its wings, arranged in pairs near the fuselage. The engine’s development commenced in 1947, originally intended to power a competing design by the Bristol Aeroplane Company against the Vulcan.

File:Bristol Olympus 101 gas flow diagram.jpg

Gas flow schematic of an Olympus Mk 101 engine

Before the Olympus was ready, the prototype Vulcan VX770 conducted its maiden flight using Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 engines delivering 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust. These were soon replaced with more powerful Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.6 engines rated at 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust. Subsequently, VX770 served as a flying test platform for the Rolls-Royce Conway. The second prototype, VX777, first flew equipped with Olympus 100 engines producing 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust and was later upgraded to Olympus 101 units. During its flight with a Phase 2C (B.2) wing in 1957, VX777 was fitted with Olympus 102 engines generating 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust.

Initial B.1 models featured Olympus 101 engines, while subsequent deliveries were powered by Olympus 102 variants. Upon overhaul, all Olympus 102 engines were modified to Olympus 104 standards and uprated to produce 13,500 lbf (60 kN) thrust. The first B.2 model flew with the second-generation Olympus 200 engine, whose development began in 1952. Later B.2 variants were equipped either with uprated Olympus 201 or Olympus 301 engines. The Olympus 201 was redesignated as the Olympus 202 when fitted with a rapid air starter. This engine family was further developed into a reheat-equipped (afterburning) version intended for the cancelled TSR-2 strike/reconnaissance aircraft and the supersonic passenger jet Concorde.

At approximately ninety percent power output, the Vulcan’s engines produced a distinctive “howl” sound, caused by the design of the air intake system; this unique noise became a popular feature at airshows.

Introduction

The RAF welcomed its first Vulcan B.1, designated XA897, in September 1956. This aircraft promptly embarked on a global circumnavigation intended to showcase its impressive range and operational capabilities. Beyond demonstrating performance, the tour also served diplomatic purposes, as Vulcans frequently conducted goodwill visits to various countries throughout their service life. These visits extended across the Commonwealth, symbolizing military support and solidarity. Unfortunately, this initial tour ended tragically when, on 1 October 1956, XA897 was destroyed in a fatal crash while attempting to land at London Heathrow Airport amid adverse weather conditions.

File:VulcanB2atFilton1960s.jpg

A Vulcan B1A from the Waddington Wing performing at a public airshow in Filton during the 1960s

January 1957 saw the delivery of the first two Vulcans to 230 OCU, with crew training commencing on 21 February 1957. The inaugural OCU graduating class, No. 1 Course, qualified on 21 May 1957 and subsequently formed the initial flight of No. 83 Squadron. This squadron became the first to operate Vulcans operationally, initially utilizing aircraft loaned from the OCU before receiving its own Vulcans starting 11 July 1956. By September that year, No. 83 Squadron had been equipped with several Vulcans. The second OCU course similarly contributed personnel to No. 83 Squadron and also provided trained crews for the establishment of 101 Squadron. The final aircraft from the initial batch of twenty-five was delivered to No. 101 Squadron by the end of 1957.

To extend Vulcan missions’ endurance and range, modifications enabling in-flight refuelling were introduced beginning in 1959. Several Valiant bombers were converted into tanker aircraft specifically to support Vulcan operations. Despite this enhancement, maintaining continuous airborne patrols proved impractical; consequently, refuelling systems across the Vulcan fleet fell into disuse after the Valiant tankers were retired in 1965.

Vulcans regularly deployed to the Far East alongside other V-force bombers, particularly to Singapore, where a nuclear weapons storage facility was completed in 1959. These deployments formed part of Britain's commitment to SEATO operations and often involved joint exercises designed to evaluate allied defenses. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, plans were made to station three V-bomber squadrons armed with forty-eight Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons in the region; however, this deployment was ultimately not executed. Nonetheless, Vulcans conducted training missions there for both conventional and nuclear roles. In the early 1970s, two Vulcan squadrons were permanently assigned overseas within the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing based at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus. These units were withdrawn in the mid-1970s as Cypriot intercommunal violence escalated.

File:RAF Vulcan B.JPEG

Royal Air Force Vulcan B.2 being readied for flight on 25 May 1985

Vulcans undertook numerous long-distance flights; notably, in June 1961 one flew approximately 18,507 km from RAF Scampton to Sydney in just over twenty hours with three aerial refuellings. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Vulcans visited the United States for participation in airshows and static displays as well as competing in the Strategic Air Command's Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition at bases such as Barksdale AFB, Louisiana and former McCoy AFB, Florida. In 1961, Vulcans were involved in Operation Sky Shield, a large-scale exercise testing NORAD defenses against simulated Soviet air attacks involving B-47s and B-52s alongside a small number of Vulcans targeting major cities including New York, Chicago, and Washington, D.C.; results remained classified until 1997. Additionally, during the 1974 "Giant Voice" exercise, Vulcans successfully evaded interception attempts by USAF fighters.

Nuclear deterrent

The Vulcan played a crucial role in the United Kingdom's independent nuclear deterrent by initially deploying Britain's inaugural nuclear device, the Blue Danube gravity bomb. This early fission bomb featured a relatively low kiloton yield and was developed prior to the United States' first hydrogen bomb test. Alongside these, U.S.-owned Mk 5 bombs were supplied under the Project E agreement, later supplemented by the British tactical nuclear weapon Red Beard. Concurrently, the UK pursued its own hydrogen bomb development program; to fill the interim period before these weapons became operational, V-bombers were equipped with an Interim Megaton Weapon that utilized the Blue Danube casing but housed the powerful pure-fission warhead Green Grass, delivering approximately 400-kiloton-of-TNT (1.7 PJ) yield. This interim bomb was designated Violet Club. Only five units were deployed before the Green Grass warhead was incorporated into a more advanced design known as Yellow Sun Mk.1.

Subsequently, the Yellow Sun Mk 2 carried the British-developed Red Snow, a derivative of the U.S. W28 warhead. This marked the first deployment of a British thermonuclear weapon, which was operational on both Vulcan and Handley Page Victor aircraft. The Valiant bomber continued to operate U.S. nuclear weapons assigned under dual-key control to SACEUR. Meanwhile, Red Beard weapons were stationed in Singapore for use by Vulcan and Victor bombers. Beginning in 1963, three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s and two squadrons of Victor B.2s were armed with the Blue Steel rocket-powered stand-off missile, which featured the 1.1 Mt (4.6 PJ) yield Red Snow warhead.

In terms of operations, RAF Bomber Command collaborated with the Strategic Air Command through the Single Integrated Operational Plan starting in 1958 to cover all key Soviet targets; by late 1959, 108 RAF V-bombers had assigned targets under this strategy. From 1962 onward, each squadron at RAF bomber bases maintained one aircraft armed with nuclear weapons on continuous Quick Reaction Alert (QRA). Vulcans placed on QRA were expected to scramble within four minutes of receiving an alert, reflecting the estimated warning time between detection of a Soviet nuclear launch and impact on Britain. The closest instance of Vulcans being involved in a potential nuclear conflict occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 when Bomber Command escalated to Alert Condition 3; this heightened readiness was stood down in early November.

File:AvroVulcan2008.JPG

XH558 departing at the 2008 Farnborough Airshow

Plans were made for Vulcans to be equipped with the Skybolt missile as a replacement for Blue Steel, with Vulcan B.2 models modified during production to carry two Skybolt missiles beneath their wings. A proposed B.3 variant featuring an extended wingspan capable of carrying up to six Skybolts was introduced in 1960. However, following U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s cancellation of the Skybolt program in 1962—based on Defense Secretary Robert McNamara’s advice and resulting in the Skybolt Crisis—the Blue Steel missile remained in service. To supplement Blue Steel until the Royal Navy assumed nuclear deterrence duties with Polaris SLBM-equipped submarines, Vulcan crews adopted a revised mission profile: cruising at high altitude during transit under clear conditions, descending to low altitude near targets to evade enemy defenses, and deploying a parachute-retarded bomb, specifically the WE.177B.

Prior to WE.177’s laydown mode introduction, attack profiles involved a pop-up maneuver allowing time for arming Yellow Sun bombs—initially climbing to approximately 11,000 feet for level-flight release. To further minimize exposure to surface-to-air missiles at release point, climb-release techniques evolved depending on aircraft variant and engine type; for example, Mk 2 Vulcans with 301 series engines and Yellow Sun bombs would pop up at roughly 18,450 yards from target at a 15° climb angle before releasing at about 10,500 feet altitude. Since these aircraft were optimized for high-altitude flight, low-level training cruise speeds were limited to 240 knots with practice attack dashes not exceeding 350 knots to preserve airframe integrity; operational missions planned low-altitude speeds around 325 knots with maximum speeds reaching 375 knots, including a one-time dash allowance up to 415 knots for ten minutes—likely corresponding to final attack phases. RAF Air Vice Marshal Ron Dick, a former Vulcan pilot, questioned whether such low-level tactics would have been effective against Soviet defenses.

After British Polaris submarines became fully operational and Blue Steel was retired in 1970, Vulcans continued their role carrying WE.177B tactical nuclear weapons as part of Britain's contribution to NATO's standing forces in Europe; however, aircraft were no longer maintained at fifteen-minute readiness during peacetime. Additionally, two squadrons based in Cyprus under Near East Air Force command were assigned strategic strike roles within the framework of the Central Treaty Organization. With both WE.177B and Vulcan bomber retirement approaching, platforms such as the Blackburn Buccaneer, SEPECAT Jaguar, and Panavia Tornado carried on with WE.177C weapons until their phase-out in 1998. Although not a direct replacement for Vulcans, the multi-role Tornado interdictor/strike bomber assumed many of their former operational responsibilities.

Conventional role

File:VulcanblackbuckefJM.jpg

Vulcan XM597 displayed at the National Museum of Flight, Scotland; note the Operation Black Buck insignia and the small Brazilian flag signifying the aircraft's internment in Brazil.

File:The Vulcan at RAF Waddington, 1982.jpeg

Flight crew and engineers with the Vulcan before deployment to Ascension Island

See also: Operation Black Buck

While the Vulcan was primarily equipped for nuclear armaments during its operational tenure, it also fulfilled a secondary function involving conventional ordnance. In conventional combat scenarios, the Vulcan was capable of carrying as many as 21 bombs, each weighing 1,000 lb (454 kg), within its bomb bay. Beginning in the 1960s, Vulcan squadrons regularly engaged in training exercises focused on conventional bombing; aircrews were trained to execute both nuclear and conventional strike missions. Different attack profiles were practiced depending on anticipated enemy defenses. Against adversaries protected by fighter aircraft and surface-to-air missiles (SAM), a laydown delivery using a retard tail unit (Mk 117) was preferred. When facing Soviet SA-2 Guideline missile threats, the Vulcan could execute a pop-up maneuver to approximately 2,500 feet—positioned beneath the SAM engagement zone yet above the threshold for self-inflicted damage from free-fall bombs. If confronted by air defense artillery, the aircraft might ascend to around 8,000 feet to reduce exposure to gunfire and take advantage of automatic bombing calculations via the Navigation and Bombing System Calc 3.

The Vulcan’s only combat operations occurred near the conclusion of its service in 1982. During the Falklands War, it was deployed against Argentinian forces occupying the Falkland Islands. These sorties became known as Black Buck missions, requiring each Vulcan to cover a distance of 3,889 mi (6,259 km) from Ascension Island to Stanley. To enable this range, Victor tankers provided crucial aerial refueling; each mission consumed roughly 1,100,000 imp gal (5,000,000 L) of fuel.

Preparations for the five Vulcans assigned to these missions commenced on 9 April. Modifications included bomb bay alterations, reactivation of long-unused in-flight refueling equipment, integration of an updated navigation system based on that used in the Vickers VC10, and upgrades to several onboard electronic components. Additionally, new pylons were installed under the wings to carry an electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod and Shrike anti-radar missiles on wing hardpoints.

File:Vulcan bomber 18 May 1982.JPG

A Vulcan flying over Ascension Island on 18 May 1982

The first Black Buck mission took place on 1 May when a single Vulcan (XM607) overflew Port Stanley and targeted its airfield runway with bombs, scoring one direct hit that rendered it unusable by fighter aircraft. This operation was promptly followed by strikes against anti-aircraft installations conducted by British Aerospace Sea Harriers launched from Royal Navy carriers. Two additional missions involved missile attacks on radar sites while two others were aborted. At that time, these sorties set records for the longest-distance bombing raids globally. The Vulcans’ ECM systems effectively jammed Argentine radar during their presence in the combat zone, thereby reducing risks for other British aircraft operating nearby.

On 3 June 1982, Vulcan B.2 XM597 from No. 50 Squadron participated in "Black Buck 6," targeting Argentinian radar installations at Stanley airfield. During refueling on its return leg to Ascension Island, a probe failure caused fuel shortages that forced diversion to Galeão Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro, located in neutral Brazil. En route, sensitive documents were discarded along with two remaining AGM-45 Shrike missiles—though one failed to deploy. Following a distress call, Brazilian Air Force Northrop F-5 fighters escorted the Vulcan as it made an emergency landing at Rio with minimal fuel reserves. The aircraft and crew were held in Brazil until hostilities ceased nine days later.

Reconnaissance

In November 1973, following the scheduled disbandment of the Victor SR.2-equipped No. 543 Squadron, No. 27 Squadron was re-established at RAF Scampton, taking on the Vulcan aircraft to fulfill the maritime radar reconnaissance mission. Operating over the waters surrounding the British Isles, including the strategically vital GIUK gap between Iceland and the UK, the squadron conducted high-altitude patrols utilizing the Vulcan's H2S radar system to track maritime traffic. During peacetime, these radar detections could be supplemented by low-level visual confirmation and photographic documentation of targets of interest. In wartime scenarios, Vulcans would delegate visual target identification to Buccaneers or Canberras and coordinate strike operations by Buccaneers against enemy vessels. Initially outfitted with several B.2 models, the squadron ultimately operated nine B.2 (MRR) variants—also unofficially referred to as SR.2. Modifications for this role included removal of the TFR and its associated thimble radome, alongside installation of the LORAN C navigation system. A distinctive external feature was a glossy paint scheme with a pale grey underside designed to resist sea spray corrosion.

Additionally, No. 27 Squadron assumed the secondary responsibility of air sampling from No. 543 Squadron. This entailed flying through contaminated plumes and employing onboard apparatus to gather fallout from nuclear detonations conducted above or below ground for subsequent examination at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment in Aldermaston. Five aircraft were equipped with small pylons on former Skybolt hardpoints to carry sampling pods adapted from drop tanks. These pods captured samples on filters during flight, complemented by a smaller "localiser" pod mounted on the port wing between the main pylons.

The squadron was disbanded at Scampton in March 1982, with its maritime radar reconnaissance responsibilities transferred to RAF Nimrod aircraft.

Aerial refuelling function

Although the Vulcan B.2 was scheduled for retirement from RAF service in 1982 following the Falklands conflict, the extensive airframe fatigue experienced by the RAF's Victor tankers during the campaign necessitated an interim solution. While tanker variants of the Vickers VC10 had been commissioned in 1979, and orders for Lockheed TriStar tankers followed post-conflict, six Vulcans were temporarily converted into single-point refuelling tankers. This conversion involved removing electronic countermeasure jammers from the tail ECM bay and installing a single hose drum unit in their place. Additionally, a cylindrical bomb-bay fuel tank was added, increasing fuel capacity to nearly 100,000 lb (45,000 kg).

Approval for converting these six aircraft was granted on 4 May 1982. Remarkably, just fifty days after authorization, the first converted Vulcan tanker, XH561, was delivered to RAF Waddington. The Vulcan K.2 tankers operated alongside three Vulcan B.2s under No. 50 Squadron, supporting UK air defence until the squadron's disbandment in March 1984.

Vulcan Display Flight

File:Red Arrows Farewell to Vulcan MOD 45159089.jpg

Vulcan B.2 flying in formation with the Red Arrows, 2015

Main article: Vulcan Display Flight

Following the dissolution of No. 50 Squadron, two Vulcans continued their RAF service by participating in air shows as part of the Vulcan Display Flight, based at Waddington but managed through No. 55 Squadron at RAF Marham. Initially, displays featured XL426, which was sold in 1986 and replaced by XH558, beginning its display career in 1985. The VDF operated XH558 until ceasing performances in 1992 after budget constraints led the Ministry of Defence to conclude that maintaining the display was financially unviable. Both aircraft were preserved thereafter; however, a third Vulcan, XH560—kept as a reserve during early years—was eventually scrapped.

Engine test platforms

• The prototype VX770 had its original Sapphire engines replaced with four Rolls-Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofans generating 15,000 lbf (67 kN) thrust each in 1957 and was handed over to Rolls-Royce as a testbed for Conway engines. It operated with these pioneering turbofans—the first of their kind globally—until its fatal accident in September 1958.
• The initial Vulcan B.1 XA889 served to complete flight clearances for Olympus variants 102 and 104.
• In spring 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA891 was outfitted with four Olympus 200 engines to conduct extensive flight testing but crashed during a routine test flight in July that year.
• XA894 operated with five Olympus engines: four standard Mk.101s plus a reheated Olympus 320 mounted beneath the wing intended for the BAC TSR-2 project; it was destroyed by a ground fire at Filton on December 3, 1962.
• Withdrawn from RAF service in June 1964, XA896 was earmarked for conversion into a testbed for the Bristol Siddeley BS100 vectored thrust turbofan designed for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154; however, following cancellation of the P.1154 in February 1965, XA896 was scrapped prior to modification.
• After sustaining a landing accident in 1958 and subsequent rebuild, XA902 replaced VX770 as the Conway testbed with four RCo.11 engines installed; later modifications included replacing the two inner Conways with Rolls-Royce Speys, first flown in this configuration on October 12, 1961.
• Surplus to Blue Steel missile trials, XA903 was modified similarly to XA894 to evaluate the Olympus 593 engine intended for Concorde; its maiden flight occurred on October 1, 1966, with testing continuing until June 1971. In April 1973, XA903 began flights carrying an underslung Rolls-Royce RB.199 turbofan developed for the Panavia Tornado; this aircraft was the last B.1 variant to fly before retirement in February 1979.
• BSEL utilized Vulcan B.2 XH557 to develop and test the Olympus 301 engine variant; it first flew with this larger engine in May 1961 before being returned to Woodford in 1964 for refurbishment and reintegration into RAF service.

Variants

B.1

The original production model. The earliest units featured straight leading edges, which were later upgraded to phase 2 (kinked) wing designs. Initial finishes were silver, subsequently replaced by anti-flash white. Numerous aircraft were updated to the B.1A configuration between 1959 and 1963. The final unmodified B.1s serving with No. 230 OCU in the RAF were retired by 1966. The last recorded flight of any B.1, specifically engine testbed XA903, occurred in March 1979.

B.1A

A modification of the B.1 equipped with an ECM system housed in an enlarged tail cone similar to the B.2 variant. Unlike the B.2, these did not receive significant wing reinforcement for low-level operations and were phased out between 1966 and 1967.

B.2

An enhanced version of the B.1 featuring a larger, thinner Phase 2C wing and powered by Olympus 201-202 or Olympus 301 engines. Electrical systems were upgraded with AAPP and a Ram Air Turbine (RAT). The ECM was comparable to that of the B.1A. Most units were fitted with a TFR housed within a nose thimble radome during the mid-1960s. From the mid-1970s, new radar warning receiver antennas on the tail fin gave it a distinctive squared-off top. Although some references mention a Vulcan B.2A—either referring to B.2s with Olympus Mk 301 engines or those adapted to carry Blue Steel missiles—the only officially recognized designation remained B.2 aside from MRR and tanker variants.

B.2 (MRR)

Nine B.2 aircraft converted for maritime radar reconnaissance duties, with the TFR removed. Five of these were further adapted for air sampling missions and featured a distinctive glossy finish with a light grey underside.

K.2

Six B.2s modified for air-to-air refueling roles equipped with Mark 17 hose drum units semi-recessed into the tail cone, also without TFRs. Fitted with three bomb-bay drum tanks, this was the sole Vulcan variant capable of emergency fuel jettisoning.

B.3

A proposed long-range missile carrier variant designed to carry up to six Skybolt missiles on missions lasting as long as twelve hours; this model was never constructed.

Production

Woodford Aerodrome assembled a total of 134 production Vulcans: 45 built to the B.1 specification and 89 as B.2 models, with the final unit delivered to the RAF in January 1965.

Contract date	Quantity	Variant	Notes
6 Jul 1948	Template:Right	Prototypes	Two prototype aircraft were delivered in August 1952 and September 1953.
14 Aug 1952	Template:Right	Vulcan B.1	The first production aircraft flew on 4 February 1955 and deliveries occurred between June 1955 and December 1957.
30 Sep 1954	Template:Right	Vulcan B.1	Delivered from January 1958 through April 1959.
30 Sep 1954	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Delivered between September 1959 and December 1960.
31 Mar 1955	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Deliveries took place from January to May 1961.
25 Feb 1956	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Delivered between July 1961 and November 1962.
22 Jan 1958	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Delivered from February 1963 to January 1965; one aircraft was retained as a static test airframe without ever flying.
Total	Template:Right

Operators

File:XH558 Planform.JPG

The Vulcan to the Sky Trust's Avro Vulcan XH558

Template:UK

• Aircraft from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment utilized for testing and assessment
• Royal Air Force
  • 9 Squadron operated the B.2 variant between 1962 and 1982
  • 12 Squadron flew the B.2 from 1962 until 1967
  • 27 Squadron employed the B.2 model from 1961 to 1972 and later the B.2 (MRR) from 1973 through 1982
  • 35 Squadron utilized the B.2 between 1962 and 1982
  • 44 Squadron operated the B.1/B.1A from 1960 to 1967, followed by the B.2 until 1982
  • 50 Squadron flew the B.1/B.1A from 1961 to 1966, transitioned to the B.2 from 1966 to 1984, and also operated the K.2 variant between 1982 and 1984
  • 83 Squadron, the inaugural Vulcan squadron, flew the B.1/B.1A from 1957 to 1960 and then the B.2 until 1969
  • 101 Squadron operated the B.1/B1A from 1957 to 1967 and subsequently the B.2 until 1982
  • 617 Squadron flew OB.1/B1A models from 1958 to 1961 and switched to the B.2 variant until 1981
  • 230 OCU, active from 1956 to 1981, was the first unit to operate Vulcans, providing operational training and conversion for aircrews
  • Bomber Command Development Unit
• The Vulcan To The Sky Trust operated G-VLCN (formerly XH558), which remained airworthy until June 2023 at Doncaster Sheffield Airport
• Various aircraft were also managed at intervals by the Ministry of Supply/Aviation for experimental purposes by Avro, Bristol Siddeley Engines, Rolls-Royce, and the Blind Landing Experimental Unit (BLEU)

Bases

• RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus: hosted two squadrons flying B.2 models between 1969 and 1975
  • No. 9 Squadron was stationed here from 1969 after relocating from Cottesmore, returning to Waddington in 1975
  • No. 35 Squadron also moved from Cottesmore in 1969 and remained until returning to Scampton in 1975
• RAF Coningsby accommodated three squadrons operating B.2 aircraft between 1962 and 1964
  • No. 9 Squadron formed here in 1962, then transferred to Cottesmore in 1964
  • No. 12 Squadron also formed in this period before moving to Cottesmore in '64
  • No. 35 Squadron followed a similar pattern, relocating in '64 to Cottesmore

File:Avro Vulcans at RAF Cottesmore 1975.jpg

Avro Vulcans of No. 617 Squadron at RAF Cottesmore circa 1975

• RAF Cottesmore hosted three squadrons between 1964 and 1969
  • No. 9 Squadron arrived here from Coningsby in '64 before moving on to Akrotiri in '69
  • No.12 Squadron relocated here in '64 until its disbandment in '67
  • No.35 Squadron moved here in '64 before transferring to Akrotiri in '69
• RAF Finningley
  • No.101 Squadron was established here in '57 as the second operational B.1 squadron before moving to Waddington in '61
  • The 230 OCU operated here from '61 after relocating from Waddington, then moved on to Scampton in '69
• RAF Scampton served as home base for four squadrons at various times between '61 and '82
  • No.27 Squadron formed here in '61 flying B.2s until disbanding in '72; it reformed in '73 operating the B.2 (MRR) variant until '82
  • No.35 Squadron returned here from Akrotiri in '75 operating B.2s until its disbandment in March '82
  • No.83 Squadron reformed here in '60 flying B.2s until disbanding in '69
  • No.617 Squadron operated here from '58 with the B.1 and then with the B.2 from '61 until disbanding in '81
  • The 230 OCU relocated here in '69 remaining active until its disbandment in '81
• RAF Waddington was both the initial and final operational base for Vulcans, hosting several squadrons intermittently between '57 and '84
  • No.9 Squadron moved here from Akrotiri in '75 remaining until disbandment in '82
  • No.44 Squadron formed here in '60 with B.1/B1A aircraft, upgraded to B.2s by '66 before disbanding in '82
  • No.50 Squadron established here in '61 with B.1/B1A models, converted to B.2s by '66, adding tanker K.2s after '82 until disbanding in '84
  • No.83 Squadron was initially based here as the first operational squadron flying B.1s between '57 and '60 before reforming later that year at Scampton with B.2s
  • No.101 Squadron relocated here from Finningley in '61 operating B.1/B1As before switching to B.2s by '67 until disbanding in '82
  • The training-focused 230 OCU was formed at Waddington in '56 before moving on to Finningley in '61 and eventually Scampton by '70

V-Bomber dispersal airfields

Further information: List of V Bomber dispersal bases

Should a transition to war occur, V Bomber squadrons were instructed to rapidly deploy four aircraft each to 26 designated dispersal airfields scattered throughout the United Kingdom. During the early 1960s, the RAF procured 20 Beagle Basset communication planes specifically tasked with transporting crews to these dispersal locations. However, the strategic significance of these aircraft was short-lived, waning as the primary nuclear deterrent role shifted to the Royal Navy’s Polaris (UK nuclear programme) submarines.

Accidents and incidents

• Further information: 1956 London Heathrow Avro Vulcan crash
  On 1 October 1956, Vulcan B.1 XA897, the inaugural delivery of its type, crashed at London Heathrow Airport amid Operation Tasman Flight—a ceremonial tour to Australia and New Zealand. Following a ground-controlled approach in poor weather conditions, the aircraft impacted the ground approximately 700 yd (640 m) short of the runway just as engine thrust was being increased. The collision likely caused failure of the main undercarriage drag links, forcing the landing gear rearwards and damaging the wing’s trailing edge. After this initial impact, XA897 briefly became airborne again. The pilot, Squadron Leader D. R. Howard, alongside co-pilot Air Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst, AOC-in-C Bomber Command, both ejected safely; however, the remaining four occupants—including a spare pilot and an Avro representative—perished when the aircraft struck the ground once more and disintegrated.

• In 1957, Vulcan B.1 XA892, assigned to the A&AEE at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing, inadvertently exceeded an indicated Mach number (IMN) of 1.04, alerting its crew that supersonic speed had been reached. Commanded by Flt Lt Milt Cottee (RAAF) with co-pilot Flt Lt Ray Bray (RAF), the flight aimed for 478 mph (769 km/h) at 0.98 IMN while subjecting the aircraft to a 3 g load factor. After climbing to 35,000 ft (11,000 m), it dived intending to hit target speed at 27,000 ft (8,200 m). Nearing this altitude, throttles were closed and full up-elevator applied; nevertheless, XA892 continued pitching nose-down. Cottee considered inverting and rolling upright but instead deployed speed brakes. Despite exceeding their maximum operating speed, these brakes remained intact and effectively slowed the aircraft, which leveled off at about 8,000 ft (2,400 m) after passing vertical around 18,000 ft (5,500 m). No sonic boom was detected, suggesting true Mach 1 was not reached. Post-flight inspection revealed deformation in a rear bulkhead.

File:Avro Vulcan VX770 A.V.Roe Farnborough 11.09.54 edited-2.jpg

The prototype Vulcan VX770 in 1954 featuring its original "pure delta" wing design

• Main article: 1958 Syerston Avro Vulcan crash
  On 20 September 1958, prototype Vulcan VX770 was piloted by a Rolls-Royce test pilot during an engine performance flight coinciding with a flypast at RAF Syerston’s Battle of Britain At Home event. After flying along the main runway and initiating a starboard roll with a slight climb, structural failure occurred as the starboard wing disintegrated due to collapse of its main spar. The aircraft entered a dive with flames engulfing the starboard wing before crashing; three occupants of a nearby controllers’ caravan and all four crew aboard were killed. Investigations suggested causes including pilot error, metal fatigue from air intake vibrations, and insufficient maintenance practices.

• On 24 October 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA908 of No. 83 Squadron RAF crashed east of Detroit, Michigan following a complete electrical failure near 30,000 ft (9,100 m) altitude. Although backup power was designed to provide approximately 20 minutes of emergency electrical supply enabling diversion to local airports, it failed after only three minutes due to a short circuit in the service busbar that immobilized controls. En route to Lincoln AFB in Nebraska, XA908 entered a steep dive before impacting terrain and creating a 40-foot (12 m) crater excavated during wreckage recovery efforts. Despite substantial property damage on the ground, there were no fatalities among civilians and only one injury reported; all six crew members lost their lives—including the co-pilot who ejected but whose body was recovered months later from Lake St Clair. The crew were interred at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Trenton alongside RAF student pilots who died in WWII accidents nearby.

• On 24 July 1959, Vulcan B.1 XA891 crashed following an electrical malfunction during an engine test flight shortly after takeoff. The crew observed generator warning indicators and loss of busbar voltage; Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison climbed to 14,000 ft (4,300 m), steering clear of populated areas while engineers attempted repairs. When recovery seemed impossible, Harrison ordered rear compartment personnel to evacuate and instructed co-pilot ejection before ejecting himself—all crew survived successfully—the first full Vulcan crew escape—and the aircraft crashed near Kingston upon Hull.

• On 26 October 1959, Vulcan B.1 XH498 took part in an airshow celebrating Wellington International Airport’s opening (formerly Rongotai Airport). After performing a "touch-and-go landing" on Runway 34 and preparing for full-stop landing, wind shear and turbulence caused XH498 to touch down short of runway threshold. The port undercarriage clipped an embankment near Moa Point damaging wing attachments and fuel lines; this rupture prevented proper landing gear support. The port wing tip nearly contacted runway surface before lifting off again spilling fuel over spectators on adjacent apron areas—averted disaster thanks to pilot skill as crowd was nearby. XH498 proceeded safely to RNZAF Ohakea for emergency landing on nose and starboard gear with minimal further damage; it was repaired by UK teams and returned to service until October 1967.

• On 16 September 1960, Vulcan B.2 XH557 damaged facilities known as "Runway Garage" at Bristol Filton Airport while being delivered for Olympus 301 engine testing with Bristol Siddeley Engines division. Approaching under poor weather conditions, it touched down midway along runway; after deploying braking parachute but realizing insufficient stopping distance remained, captain advanced throttles for go-around. Jet blast caused significant property damage including flattening petrol pumps, knocking down streetlights on A38 road, toppling railings, and shattering vehicle windscreens before diverting safely to St Mawgan; aircraft returned to Filton days later.

• On 12 June 1963, Vulcan B.1A XH477 from No. 50 Squadron RAF crashed into mountainous terrain in Aberdeenshire during low-level training exercise resulting in fatalities of all five crew members aboard.

• On 11 May 1964, Vulcan B.2 XH535 entered a spin while demonstrating very low speed descent rates during Boscombe Down demonstration flight; deployment of landing parachute briefly arrested spin before resumption occurred near 2,500 ft (760 m) altitude prompting commander order for crew bailout—pilot and co-pilot successfully ejected but rear compartment crew did not presumably due to high g forces experienced.

• On 16 July 1964, Vulcan B.1A XA909 suffered mid-air explosion leading to shutdown of No.3 and No.4 engines caused by bearing failure in No.4 engine; extensive starboard wing damage resulted in insufficient aileron control and inaccurate airspeed readings but entire crew successfully evacuated shortly afterward.

• On 7 October 1964, Vulcan B.2 XM601 crashed during overshoot maneuver following asymmetric power approach at Coningsby; co-pilot applied full throttle prematurely resulting in excessive asymmetric thrust beyond rudder control authority causing spin and fatal crash killing entire crew.

• On 25 May 1965, Vulcan B.2 XM576 suffered crash-landing at Scampton shortly after delivery causing write-off within first year of service.

• On 11 February 1966, Vulcan B.2 XH536 assigned to IX Squadron Cottesmore Wing collided with terrain near summit of Fan Bwlch Chwyth in Brecon Beacons during low-level exercise amid snow-covered hilltops and reduced visibility conditions; all crew perished.

• On 6 April 1967, Vulcan B.2 XL385 caught fire on takeoff roll at RAF Scampton while carrying Blue Steel missile training round; turbine disc failure caused total destruction though all onboard—including an Air Training Corps cadet—escaped unharmed.

• On 30 January 1968, Vulcan B.2 XM604 lost control during overshoot at RAF Cottesmore following Olympus turbine disc failure after bomb-bay overheat indications; rear crew perished while both pilots ejected—the captain survived due to parachute snagging on power lines.

• On 7 January 1971, Vulcan B.2 XM610 from No.44 Squadron RAF crashed near Wingate after fatigue failure of blade in No.1 engine ignited fuel system fire; crew evacuated safely prior to crash impact.

• On 14 October 1975, Vulcan B.2 XM645 from No.9 Squadron RAF undershot runway at RAF Luqa Malta losing left undercarriage then broke apart over Żabbar town during emergency landing attempt; pilot and co-pilot escaped via ejection seats but five other crew died along with one civilian fatality on ground due to falling debris causing injuries among approximately twenty others.

• On 17 January 1977, Vulcan B.2 XM600 of No.101 Squadron crashed near Spilsby following bomb-bay fire warning leading to No.2 engine fire; escalating flames prompted evacuation orders—three rear crew escaped around 6,000 ft (1,800 m), co-pilot ejected first followed by captain at lower altitude as control deteriorated; cause traced to arcing electrical terminals on ram air turbine igniting adjacent fuel pipe.

• On 12 August 1978, Vulcan B.2 XL390 from No.617 Squadron crashed during unauthorized low-level display at Naval Air Station Glenview Illinois after executing poorly performed wingover maneuver causing stall and fatal crash killing entire crew.

• On 3 June 1982, while returning from Falklands mission XM597 lost refuelling probe mid-air leading to diversion into Brazilian territory where it was escorted by Brazilian Air Force fighters; diplomatic negotiations ensued resulting in release after seven days detention on condition that aircraft abstain from further conflict involvement.

• On 28 May 2012, during takeoff roll at Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Vulcan B.2 XH558 experienced simultaneous failure of two port engines due to accidental ingestion of silica gel desiccant left inside air intake post-maintenance; both engines destroyed rapidly though fire suppression systems prevented further damage allowing safe abort; aircraft returned to flight status by July that year.

Surviving aircraft

Main article: List of surviving Avro Vulcans

File:XH558Display.jpeg

XH558 during its inaugural public flight display post-restoration on 5 July 2008

A number of Vulcan bombers remain preserved, exhibited in museums across the United Kingdom and North America (both the United States and Canada). Among these, the Vulcan XH558 (G-VLCN) "Spirit of Great Britain" served as a Royal Air Force display aircraft within the Vulcan Display Flight until its retirement in 1993. Following its grounding, it was subsequently restored to airworthiness by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and performed as a civilian display aircraft from 2008 through 2015, before being withdrawn again due to engineering constraints. In its current status, XH558 is maintained at Doncaster Sheffield Airport where it operates as a taxiable exhibit, a function also fulfilled by two other preserved Vulcans: XL426 (G-VJET) stationed at Southend Airport, and XM655 (G-VULC), located at Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield. Additionally, the B.2 model XJ823 is exhibited at the Solway Aviation Museum at Carlisle Lake District Airport. The aircraft XM607 is undergoing restoration at RAF Waddington and has been positioned as a gate guardian since its decommissioning. Another example, XM594, is on public display at the Newark Air Museum in Newark, Nottinghamshire, England.

Specifications (B.1)

File:Avro Vulcan B Mk 2.svg

Vulcan B.2

Comparison of variants

Overview of variant specifications

	B.1	B.1A	B.2	B.2 (MRR)	K.2
Wingspan	99 ft 5 in (30.30 m)		111 ft 0 in (33.83 m)
Length	97 ft 1 in (29.59 m)	105 ft 6 in (32.16 m) [99 ft 11 in (30.45 m) excluding probe]
Height	26 ft 6 in (8.08 m)		27 ft 1 in (8.26 m)
Wing area	3,554 sq ft (330.2 m2)		3,964 sq ft (368.3 m2)
Maximum takeoff weight	167,000 lb (76,000 kg) 185,000 lb (84,000 kg) (operational requirement)		204,000 lb (93,000 kg)
Cruising speed	Mach 0.86 indicated
Maximum speed	Mach 0.95 indicated		Mach 0.93 indicated (Mach 0.92 with 301 engines)	Mach 0.93 indicated	Unknown
Service ceiling	56,000 ft		Between 45,000 ft and 60,000 ft (dependent on oxygen apparatus; no structural ceiling limitation)
Electrical system	112 V DC		115/200 V AC, three-phase, 400 Hz
Emergency electrical system	Battery-powered		Ram air turbine and Airborne Auxiliary Power Plant
Engines	4 × Bristol Olympus 101, 102, or 104 engines (Rolls-Royce)	4 × Bristol Olympus 104 engines	4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series, 301 engines	4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series engines
Main fuel capacity	(9280 imp gal / equivalent US gal and liters) / (74240 lb at specific gravity 0.8)	(9260 imp gal / equivalent US gal and liters) / (74080 lb)
Bomb bay fuel capacity	None	(style=text-align:center;) /	(style=text-align:center;) / (two cylindrical tanks each of 995 imp gal)	(style=text-align:center;) / (three cylindrical tanks each of 995 imp gal)
Powered flying controls	One duplex rudder, four elevators, four ailerons	One duplex rudder, eight elevons
Armament	(colspan=2) style=text-align:center; One free-fall nuclear bomb or up to twenty-one conventional bombs of 1000 lb each	(style=text-align:center;) One Blue Steel missile or one free-fall nuclear bomb or twenty-one conventional bombs of 1000 lb each	(colspan=2) style=text-align:center; None

Prominent media appearances

Main article: Avro Vulcan in fiction

See also

Bibliography

• {{cite book

   last     Jenkins
   first     Dennis R.
   title     B-1 Lancer: The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed
   publisher     McGraw-Hill
   location     New York, US
   year     1999
   isbn     0 -07 -134694 -5
}}

• {{cite book

   last     Jones
   first     Barry
   title     V-Bombers: Valiant, Victor and Vulcan
   publisher     The Crowood Press
   location     Ramsbury, UK
   year     2007
   isbn     978 -1 -86126 -945 -4
}}

• {{cite book

   last1     Kingsley
   first1     Simon
   last2     Quegan
   first2     Shaun
   title     Understanding Radar Systems
   publisher     SciTech Publishing
   location     Raleigh, North Carolina
   year     1999
   isbn     1 -891121 -05 -7
}}

• {{cite book

   last     Lake
   first     Alan
   title     Flying Units of the RAF: The Ancestry, Formation and Disbandment of all Flying Units since 1912 
   publisher     Airlife Publishing 
   location     Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK 
   year     1999 
   isbn     1 -84037 -086 -6 
}}

• {{cite book

   last     Laming 
   first     Tim 
   title     The Vulcan Story:1952–2002 
   publisher     Silverdale Books 
   location      Enderby , Leicester , UK 
   year      2002 
   isbn      1 -85605 -701 -1 
}}

• {{cite book

  last1   Polmar   first1   Norman   last2   Bell   first2   Dana   title   One Hundred Years of World Military Aircraft   publisher   Naval Institute Press   location   Annapolis , Maryland   year   2004   isbn   1 -59114 -686 -0 
}}

• {{cite book

  last1   Price   first1   Alfred   last2   Blackman   first2   Tony   last3   Edmondson   first3   Andrew   title   Avro Vulcan Manual: An Insight into Owning, Restoring, Servicing and Flying Britain's Legendary Cold War Bomber (Owner's Workshop Manual)   publisher   Haynes   location   Sparkford , Somerset , UK   year     2010     isbn     978 -1 -84425 -831 -4 
}}

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    last     Richardson    first     Doug    title     Stealth Warplanes    publisher     Zenith Imprint    location     North Branch , Minnesota    year     2001    isbn     0 -7603 -1051 -3 }}

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    last1     Seddon    first1     J.    last2     Goldsmith    first2     E. L.    title     Intake Aerodynamics (Aiaa Education Series)    publisher     American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics    location     Reston , Virginia    year     1999    isbn     1 -56347 -361 -5 }}

• {{cite book

    last     Segell    first     Glen    title     Wither or dither: British Aerospace Collaborative Procurement with Europe    publisher     Glen Segell Publishers    location     London , UK    year     1997    isbn     1 -901414 -03 -5 }}

• {{cite book

    last     Stephens    first     Alan    title     Power Plus Attitude: Ideas, Strategy and Doctrine in the Royal Australian Air Force,1921–1991    publisher     AGPS Press    location     Canberra , Australia    year     1992    isbn     0 -644 -24388 -0 }}

• {{cite book  

   title   Vulcan B.Mk.1A Pilot's Notes (AP4505C–PN)   publisher   Air Ministry   location   London , UK   year  1961}}

* {{cite book    

   title   Vulcan B.Mk.2 Aircrew Manual (AP101B–1902–15)   publisher   Air Ministry   location   London , UK   year  1984}}

* {{cite book   

   last=Wansbrough‑White    first Gordon    title Names With Wings: The Names & Naming Systems of Aircraft & Engines Flown by the British Armed Forces1878–1984    publisher Airlife Publishing Ltd    location Shrewsbury , UK    year1995    isbn1‑85310‑491‑4}}

* {{cite book   

   last White    first Rowland    title Vulcan607: The Epic Story of the Most Remarkable British Air Attack since WWII    publisher Bantam Press    location London , UK    year2006    isbn0‑593‑05391‑5}}

* {{cite magazine   

   last Willis    first David    title Avro Vulcan survivors    magazine Aeroplane    volume35    issue4    date April2007}}

* {{cite book   

   last Wilson    first Stewart    title Lincoln, Canberra & F‑111 in Australian service    publisher Aerospace Publications    location Weston Creek , Australia    year1989    isbn0‑9587978‑3‑8}}

* {{cite book   

   last Wynn    first Humphrey    title RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Origins, Roles and Deployment1946–1969    publisher The Stationery Office    location London , UK    year1997    isbn0‑11‑772833‑0}}

Further reading

• Arnold, Lorna. Britain and the H-Bomb. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. ISBN 0-333-94742-8.
• Chesnau, Roger and Ray Rimell. Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 (Aeroguide 29). Ringshall, Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-946958-39-4.
• Dodds, Colin. "Flying the Tin Triangle." Aeroplane, Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007.
• Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.
• McLelland, Tim. The Avro Vulcan: A Complete History. Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing Limited, 2007. ISBN 978-0-85979-127-4.

External links

• Avro Vulcan Bomber Tribute Page Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
• Vulcan to the Sky
• Vulcans in Camera
• Vulcan history
• Vulcan Restoration Trust Archived 18 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
• Video of Roland Falk rolling a Vulcan at Farnborough in 1955 Archived 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Vulcan Test Pilot Roly Falk history
• Building the Vulcan Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine a 1957 Flight article
• the Vulcan Story Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight article from 1958
• The Virtues of the Avro Vulcan Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine a 1954 advertisement for the Vulcan in Flight magazine
• The autobiography of Bill Wood a Vulcan test pilot Archived 28 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine