Vulcan B.1A
| Industry | Aerospace, Military aviation |
|---|---|
| Predecessor | Avro 707 (test aircraft) |
| Founded | 1952 |
| Founder | A.V. Roe and Company (Avro) |
| Headquarters | United Kingdom |
| Products | Strategic bomber aircraft |
Overview
The Avro Vulcan—renamed Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963 onward—was a British jet-powered, tailless strategic bomber featuring a delta wing design. Developed by A.V. Roe and Company (commonly known as Avro) to meet Air Ministry Specification B.35/46, it served with the Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1956 through 1984. Among the trio of V bombers produced, the Vulcan stood out as the most technologically advanced and consequently the most challenging to develop. To validate the delta wing concept, several smaller-scale test aircraft, named Avro 707s, were constructed.
The initial Vulcan B.1 models entered RAF service in 1956, followed by the enhanced Vulcan B.2 variant beginning in 1960. The B.2 incorporated upgraded engines, expanded wing area, advanced electrical systems, and electronic countermeasures; many were also modified to carry the Blue Steel missile. As a key component of the V-force, the Vulcan formed the core of Britain's airborne nuclear deterrent throughout much of the Cold War era. While primarily equipped for nuclear missions, it was also capable of conventional bombing operations, as demonstrated during Operation Black Buck in the 1982 Falklands conflict between the UK and Argentina.
Initially lacking defensive armaments, the Vulcan relied on its ability to fly at high speeds and altitudes to avoid enemy interceptors. From around 1960, electronic countermeasure systems were introduced on both B.1 (B.1A) and B.2 variants. In response to evolving threats, tactics shifted towards low-level penetration during the mid-1960s. Later, in the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were converted for maritime radar reconnaissance roles and redesignated as B.2 (MRR). Towards the end of their operational life, six aircraft were transformed into K.2 tankers to provide aerial refuelling support.
Following retirement from active RAF duty, one Vulcan B.2—XH558, known as The Spirit of Great Britain—was restored for use in air displays and exhibitions until its final flight in October 2015; it remains maintained in taxiable condition. Additionally, two other B.2 airframes, XL426 and XM655, are preserved for ground running demonstrations. The Vulcan XM612 is exhibited at the Norwich Aviation Museum.
Origins
The Vulcan, along with the other V bombers, originated from Britain's initial atomic weapons programme and its strategic nuclear deterrence policies. The British atomic bomb initiative commenced following the issuance of Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 in August 1946. This requirement anticipated a government decision in January 1947 to approve atomic weapons research and development, despite the United States’ Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act), which restricted sharing nuclear information—even with former Manhattan Project allies. OR.1001 specified a weapon no longer than 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m), not exceeding 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter and weighing under 10,000 lb (4,500 kg). The bomb had to be deployable from altitudes between 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m).
In January 1947, the Ministry of Supply issued Specification B.35/46 to British aircraft manufacturers, aiming to fulfill Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229. This called for a medium-range bomber capable of delivering a single 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to targets up to 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) distant from any global base. Required performance included cruising speeds of around 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes between 35,000 and 50,000 ft (11,000 and 15,000 m), with a maximum takeoff weight not exceeding 100,000 lb (45,000 kg). Alternatively, the aircraft should carry a conventional payload of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). A related specification, OR.230, demanded a long-range bomber with a radius of action of 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km), and a maximum loaded weight of 200,000 lb (91,000 kg), but this was deemed overly demanding. Six companies submitted proposals addressing this specification, including Avro.
Avro commenced design work upon receiving Specification B.35/46 by April 1947, under the leadership of technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies. Designated Avro 698, the team quickly recognized that traditional aircraft designs could not meet the requirements. Neither the Royal Aircraft Establishment nor U.S. sources provided useful data on high-speed flight at that time. Avro was aware of Alexander Lippisch’s delta-wing fighter designs and judged that adopting a delta wing would suit their bomber’s needs. The design group estimated that employing a conventional swept wing at 45° would result in doubling the aircraft’s weight beyond limits. Understanding that swept wings enhanced longitudinal stability, they eliminated the tail assembly (empennage) and its supporting fuselage section, transforming the design into a flying wing with only a basic forward fuselage and vertical stabilizers positioned at each wingtip. This approach brought estimated weight to just 50% above the target. By reducing wingspan and filling in the area between wingtips, they achieved a delta wing planform that met the specification’s criteria. Although Lippisch is widely credited as the delta wing pioneer, Chadwick’s team arrived at their design through independent reasoning. The initial concept featured four large turbojet engines arranged in pairs within the wings near the centerline, flanked outwardly by two bomb bays.
In August 1947, following Roy Chadwick’s death in an Avro Tudor 2 prototype crash, Sir William Farren assumed leadership. Due to reductions in wing thickness, accommodating split bomb bays and stacked engines became impractical; consequently, engines were repositioned side-by-side in pairs on either side of a single bomb bay, necessitating some fuselage enlargement. The twin wingtip fins were replaced by a single central fin along the aircraft’s centerline. Meanwhile, Handley Page received a prototype contract for its crescent-winged HP.80 design responding to Specification B.35/46 in November 1947. Although Avro’s design was regarded as superior technically, awarding them the contract was delayed pending further validation of its merits. In January 1948, authorization was granted to proceed with construction of two Avro 698 prototypes.
As a contingency against potential failures of these innovative designs, Short Brothers were contracted to build a prototype (the SA.4 Sperrin) under the less stringent Specification B.14/46; however, this aircraft was ultimately deemed unnecessary. Additionally, in April 1948, Vickers-Armstrongs received approval to develop their Type 660 aircraft—later known as the Vickers Valiant—which did not fully meet B.35/46 but featured more conventional characteristics and could enter service sooner than more advanced competitors.
Avro 707 and Avro 710
Since Avro lacked prior flight experience with delta wings, the firm developed two smaller experimental aircraft derived from the 698 design: the one-third scale 707 for assessing low-speed handling, and the one-half scale 710 intended for high-speed evaluation. Two units of each type were initially commissioned. However, the 710 project was discontinued due to concerns over its lengthy development timeline; instead, a high-speed variant of the 707, designated the 707A, was created. The maiden flight of the first 707, serial VX784, took place in September 1949 but ended tragically later that month when it crashed, resulting in the death of Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE, chief test pilot at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment. The second low-speed model, VX790, constructed using the incomplete nose section of the 707A—which included an ejection seat—was redesignated as the 707B and successfully flew in September 1950 under Avro test pilot Wing Commander Roland "Roly" Falk. The high-speed 707A, with serial WD280, followed with its first flight in July 1951.
Although delays in the 707 programme limited their impact on the fundamental design of the 698,[1] testing with the 707B and 707A highlighted necessary adjustments such as lengthening the nosewheel to achieve a ground angle of incidence of 3.5°, optimal for takeoff.[2] These variants validated the delta wing concept and bolstered confidence in its aerodynamic planform. Additionally, a second 707A (WZ736) and a two-seat trainer version known as the 707C (WZ744) were produced; however, neither contributed directly to development of the 698.
First prototype VX770 and naming
Wind tunnel experiments conducted at RAE Farnborough had a greater influence on refining the design of the 698 than did work on the Avro 707 series. These studies necessitated redesigning the wing to include a cranked leading edge with droop and vortex generators to mitigate compressibility drag that would otherwise limit maximum speed.[3] This led to what became known as the "phase 2" wing configuration, initially tested on Avro 707A WD480. Unfortunately, this modification came too late to be incorporated into either of the two original prototype 698s or into the first three B.1 production aircraft before their initial flights; these early B.1s were subsequently retrofitted with the improved wing.
The prototype 698 VX770, featuring its original clean delta wing and painted in glossy white, made its inaugural flight on 30 August 1952 with Roly Falk at the controls flying solo.[4] Powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines delivering 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust each—since its intended Bristol Olympus engines were unavailable—the aircraft was equipped only with a pilot’s ejection seat and standard control wheel. Fuel was carried solely in fuselage tanks as wing tanks were absent; additional temporary fuel capacity was provided by tanks installed in the bomb bay.[5] In September at the SBAC Farnborough Air Show, Falk demonstrated an almost vertical bank maneuver with VX770.[6]
Following this public debut at Farnborough, speculation arose concerning an official name for what was then called Avro 698. Avro proposed "Ottawa" to honor their connection with Avro Canada, aligning with RAF tradition of naming bombers after inland Commonwealth towns or industrial centers.[7] Meanwhile, Flight magazine suggested "Albion," having dismissed alternatives such as "Avenger," "Apollo," and "Assegai." Ultimately, preference from senior RAF leadership leaned toward a V-class bomber designation; consequently, the Air Council announced that "Vulcan," named after the Roman god associated with fire and destruction,[8] would be adopted as its official title.
In January 1953 VX770 was temporarily grounded to install wing fuel tanks along with Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire engines rated at 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust plus other upgrades; it resumed flying in July that year.[9]
From 1957 onward VX770 served as a flying testbed for Rolls-Royce Conway bypass turbofan engines until it crashed during a flying display at RAF Syerston in September 1958.[10]
Second prototype VX777
The second prototype, designated VX777, took to the skies for the first time on 3 September 1953. This version more closely resembled the eventual production models, featuring an extended fuselage to accommodate a lengthened nose landing gear leg, which improved the wing's angle of attack and thus reduced take-off distance. A transparent bomb-aiming blister was installed beneath the cockpit area, and it was powered by Bristol Olympus 100 engines delivering 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) of thrust. Following Falk's recommendation, the original control wheel was replaced with a fighter-style control stick. Like its predecessor VX770, VX777 retained the initial wing design characterized by straight leading edges.[10] At the 1953 Farnborough Air Show, VX777 flew in formation alongside the first prototype VX770 and four Avro 707 aircraft. In July 1954, during testing at Farnborough, VX777 suffered significant damage due to a hard landing. After repairs, it was upgraded with Olympus 101 engines rated at 11,000 lbf (49 kN) thrust and resumed flight trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
Testing and type certification
While conducting high-speed and high-altitude envelope testing at the A&AEE with VX777, pilots encountered mild buffeting and other unfavorable flight behaviors near the aircraft’s maximum Mach number. Notably, there was a concerning propensity to enter an uncontrollable dive known as Mach tuck. Such characteristics were deemed unsuitable for an unarmed bomber. The installation of the phase 2 wing eliminated the buffeting issues, while an automatic Mach trimmer was introduced to counteract the high-speed dive tendency. This device applied an up-elevator input as velocity approached critical levels, exerting a force greater than that required to oppose the dive. As a result, pilots needed to push forward on the control column rather than pull back to maintain level flight as speed increased. This artificial pitch-up effect made handling more consistent with other aircraft at high speeds.[11]
The initial production B.1[N 1] XA889 conducted its maiden flight in February 1955 using the original wing[13] and joined ongoing trials by June of that year. In September 1955 at the Farnborough Air Show, Falk piloted the second production B.1 XA890—which had remained at Woodford for radio testing within the Ministry of Supply’s Air Fleet—and impressed spectators by performing a barrel roll[14] during his second flypast near the SBAC president’s tent. Following two days of demonstration flights, he was summoned by military and civil aviation officials and instructed to cease this "dangerous" maneuver.[14] XA889, now equipped with a phase 2 wing, was delivered in March 1956 to the A&AEE for evaluation in pursuit of its initial Certificate of Airworthiness, which it obtained the following month.[15]
(In 1956, VX777 underwent further modification with the larger phase 2(C) wing and Olympus 104 engines, becoming the aerodynamic prototype for the Vulcan B.2.)Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
Vulcan B.1 and B.1A
The initial batch of 15 production B.1 Vulcans were equipped with Olympus 101 engines. A significant number of these early models, often finished in bare metal, remained under the ownership of the Ministry of Supply for testing and development activities. Those assigned to RAF units were delivered to No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), with the first arriving in July 1956. Subsequent aircraft, featuring the anti-flash white paint scheme and powered by Olympus 102 engines producing 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust, began entering operational squadrons from July 1957 onward. During maintenance, the Olympus 102 engines were upgraded to the Olympus 104 standard, increasing thrust to 13,500 lbf (60 kN).
Although converting B.1s into B.2s was evaluated, it was ultimately deemed uneconomical. Instead, to prolong the operational lifespan of the B.1 fleet, Armstrong Whitworth upgraded 28 surviving B.1s fitted with Olympus 102/104 powerplants between 1959 and 1963 to the B.1A specification. These enhancements incorporated features from the B.2, including electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, in-flight refuelling receiving gear, and UHF radio capabilities. However, the B.1As were not structurally reinforced for low-level missions and consequently were all retired by 1968.
Vulcan B.2
Development of a more powerful engine began as early as 1952 when Bristol Aero Engines initiated work on the BOl.6 (Olympus 6), rated at 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust. However, fitting this engine to the B.1 design would have reintroduced aerodynamic buffeting issues necessitating wing redesign.
In May 1956, a decision was made to proceed with the Vulcan B.2 variant, led by Avro's chief designer Roy Ewans. The initial B.2 was expected to be approximately the 45th aircraft out of an order for 99 units at that time. The B.2 was designed to operate at higher altitudes over targets and offered increased operational versatility through in-flight refuelling capabilities supported by tanker aircraft. To counter evolving Soviet air defence threats, ECM equipment was incorporated, and vulnerability was further reduced by integrating the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile, which was under development.
To validate these advancements, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was modified with a larger, thinner phase-2C wing, enhanced flight control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines; this configuration first flew in August 1957. Several Vulcan B.1 airframes were utilized for testing components destined for the B.2: XA891 tested BOl.6 (later Olympus 200) engines; XA893 trialed a new AC electrical system; XA895 explored ECM systems including tail cone jammers and tail warning radar; and XA903 supported Blue Steel missile development.
The first production B.2 aircraft and 46th overall Vulcan, designated XH533, took flight in September 1958 powered by Olympus 200 engines—preceding delivery of the final B.1 (XH532) by six months in March 1959. The second B.2 model, XH534, flew in January 1959 equipped with production Olympus 201 engines delivering 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust; it more closely resembled a production-standard aircraft featuring an in-flight refuelling probe and an enlarged ECM tail cone. While some early B.2s initially lacked refuelling probes and ECM tail cones, these were retrofitted subsequently.
The first ten B.2s retained narrow engine air intakes reminiscent of their B.1 predecessors; anticipating more powerful engines, deeper air intakes were introduced starting with the eleventh aircraft (XH557) onward. Many early examples were kept for testing purposes; notably, XH558—the twelfth B.2—was delivered to RAF service in July 1960 and ultimately became the last Vulcan operational before its retirement in 1992.
The twenty-sixth B.2 produced, XL317—part of a production batch ordered in February 1956—was the first Vulcan aside from prototypes capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile; a total of 33 aircraft entered RAF service with this capability installed. Following cancellation of the Blue Steel Mk.2 in favor of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile in December 1959, modifications were made to accommodate Skybolt missiles under each wing; although Skybolt itself was canceled in November 1962, numerous aircraft were delivered or retrofitted with "Skybolt" fairings.
Later Vulcans were powered by Olympus 301 engines rated at 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust; two earlier airframes (XH557 and XJ784) were re-engined for testing purposes while seven others underwent similar conversions around 1963.
The final Vulcan B.2 model XM657 was delivered in 1965 with operational service continuing until 1984. Throughout its service life, continuous upgrades enhanced its capabilities—including rapid engine start systems, fuel tanks installed within bomb bays, structural wing reinforcements extending fatigue life for low-level flight introduced mid-1960s, improved navigation suites featuring terrain-following radar, standardization on carrying WE.177 nuclear weapons, and advanced ECM systems.
Nine B.2s were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance roles while six served as airborne tankers. Avro demonstrated an enhanced bomb rack capable of carrying up to thirty 1,000 lb bombs instead of twenty-one but this configuration was never adopted operationally.
In the Falklands conflict of 1982, the modernized Vulcan B.2 executed a long-range bombing mission against Port Stanley Airport, covering approximately 4,000 miles (6,437 km).
Proposed projects and discontinued plans
- Avro Type 718
In 1951, Avro proposed the Type 718, a delta-wing military transport derived from the Type 698 design, intended to accommodate 80 soldiers or 110 civilians. This aircraft was planned to be powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines.[16]
- Avro Atlantic
The Avro Type 722 Atlantic, announced in June 1953 as a 1952 concept, was designed as a delta-wing airliner with seating for 120 passengers and was based on the Type 698 platform.[16]
- Avro Type 732
Presented in 1956, the Avro 732 was envisioned as a supersonic evolution of the Vulcan bomber, equipped with eight de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. This design retained Vulcan influences, distinguishing it from earlier projects such as the low-altitude Avro 721 bomber proposed in 1952 or the stainless steel canard-configured Avro 730 supersonic bomber from 1954, which was cancelled in 1957 before its prototype was finished.[16]
- Vulcan Phase 6 (Vulcan B.3)
In response to a 1960 Air Staff request, Avro developed a study for a patrol missile carrier capable of carrying up to six Skybolt missiles on missions lasting up to 12 hours. The resulting design, submitted in May 1960 and known as Phase 6 Vulcan or Vulcan B.3, featured an expanded wing span of 121 ft (37 m) with increased fuel storage, additional tanks housed within a dorsal spine, a redesigned main landing gear supporting an all-up weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg), and Olympus 301 engines with reheated thrust rated at 30,000 lbf (130 kN). An updated proposal from October that year incorporated a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) fuselage plug forward of the cockpit to accommodate six crew members—including a relief pilot—all seated facing forward on ejection seats, along with aft-fan variants of the Olympus 301 engine.[17]
- Fighter-support Vulcan
Following Skybolt’s cancellation and in light of advancing Soviet air defenses, Avro suggested modifying the Vulcan to carry three Folland Gnat fighters attached beneath its wings.[18] These Gnats were intended to be deployed into hostile airspace to provide fighter escort and were expected either to land safely in allied areas or return to the Vulcan for refueling via a dedicated flight-refueling drogue system installed on the bomber.[19]
Export offers
Although several nations showed interest in acquiring Vulcans, similar to the other V-bombers, no international sales were ultimately concluded.
- Australia
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) had identified as early as 1954 that the English Electric Canberra would soon become obsolete. Various potential successors, including the Boeing B-47E, Handley-Page Victor, and Vulcan, were evaluated.
By 1962, political momentum had grown to replace the Canberra, coinciding with the emergence of fast, supersonic bombers and strategic strike aircraft such as the North American A-5 Vigilante, BAC TSR-2, and General Dynamics F-111. If the Australian government had proceeded with a TSR-2 pre-order, numerous V-bombers, Vulcans among them, might have been temporarily allocated to the RAAF. Instead, the F-111C was selected. (Following the TSR-2 cancellation, the UK government nearly adopted a similar path by considering the F-111K.)
- Argentina
During the early 1980s, Argentina approached Britain with a request to purchase several Vulcans. In September 1981, they formally applied for the prompt provision of an appropriate aircraft. British officials consented to export a single unit but made it clear that approval for multiple sales had not been granted. A January 1982 communication from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to the Ministry of Defence expressed skepticism about any further transactions without confirming Argentina’s genuine interest: "On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands." Less than three months later, following Argentina’s invasion of the Falkland Islands, a British embargo was swiftly enacted prohibiting military equipment sales.
Design
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Overview
Although the airframe featured an unconventional and striking design, its construction followed conventional principles. Apart from the most heavily stressed components, the entire framework was made from commonly used light alloy materials. The structure was divided into several key assemblies: the centre section, a rectangular box housing the bomb bay and engine compartments, framed by the front and rear spars and wing transport joints; the intake ducts and central fuselage; the forward fuselage containing the pressurized cabin; the nose section; the outer wing panels; leading edges of the wings; trailing edges of the wings and rear fuselage; and a single swept tail fin with one rudder located on its trailing edge.
Accommodation for a five-person crew was provided within the pressurized cabin arranged over two levels. The pilot and co-pilot occupied Martin-Baker 3K (3KS in B.2 models) ejection seats, while on the lower tier, the navigator radar operator, navigator plotter, and air electronics officer (AEO) faced backwards and exited through the main entrance door. Initially, the B35/46 specification included a requirement for a jettisonable crew compartment, but this was later removed. The rear crew’s escape arrangements remained contentious, notably when a practical retrofit plan was declined. Additionally, a basic sixth seat was positioned ahead of the navigator radar operator for an extra crew member; in B.2 variants, a seventh seat was installed opposite this sixth seat and in front of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer’s station could be equipped with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight, while many B.2 aircraft utilized this space to mount a vertically oriented Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera to evaluate simulated low-altitude bombing runs.
Fuel storage consisted of 14 flexible bag tanks: four located in the centre fuselage above and behind the nosewheel bay, with five tanks housed within each outer wing. These tanks were grouped into four nearly equal-capacity sections, each typically supplying its corresponding engine, although cross-feeding between tanks was feasible. The aircraft’s centre of gravity was automatically regulated by electric timers that controlled booster pump sequencing for each tank group. B.2 models could also be fitted with one or two supplementary fuel tanks inside the bomb bay.
Although designed well before considerations of low radar cross-section or other stealth features came into play, a 1957 RAE technical report observed that among all examined aircraft at that time, the Vulcan presented one of the simplest radar reflections due to its shape; only one or two components significantly contributed to its radar echo from any given angle, compared to three or more on most other aircraft types. Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith highlighted that "owing to its all-wing configuration, small vertical fin, and embedded engines, at certain angles [the Avro Vulcan] was nearly invisible to radar." Radar system specialists Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan also attributed reduced radar returns to the Vulcan’s form. Aviation author Doug Richardson acknowledged that while the Vulcan was challenging to detect on radar, he considered this unlikely to have provided substantial military benefit. In contrast, electronic warfare expert and former Vulcan AEO Dr Alfred Price asserted that "the Vulcan [...] had a large radar signature."
Colour schemes
The initial two Vulcan prototypes were coated in a glossy white finish. Early production Vulcan B.1 models emerged from the factory with a natural metal exterior; the nose radome was divided with the front section painted black and the rear section silver. Operational Vulcan B.1s featured an anti-flash white coating complemented by RAF "type D" roundels. The frontline Vulcan B.1As and B.2s maintained a similar appearance but displayed lighter-toned roundels.
When low-level attack tactics were introduced during the mid-1960s, the B.1A and B.2 variants adopted a shiny sea grey camouflage pattern incorporating medium and dark green disruptive markings on their upper surfaces, paired with white undersides and "type D" roundels. (The final 13 Vulcan B.2s, starting with XM645, were delivered from the factory with this scheme.) By the mid-1970s, Vulcan B.2s transitioned to a matte version of this camouflage, featuring light aircraft grey undersides and low-visibility roundels. The B.2(MRR) models received a similar glossy finish, with the front halves of their radomes no longer painted black. Beginning in 1979, ten Vulcans were outfitted with a full wrap-around camouflage consisting of dark sea grey and dark green hues due to findings from Red Flag exercises in the United States, where defending SAM units noted that the grey-painted undersides became conspicuously visible against terrain during steep banking maneuvers.[20]
Avionics
The Vulcan B.1’s original radio suite included two 10-channel Very High Frequency (VHF) transmitter/receivers (TR-1985/TR-1986) alongside an STR-18, 24-channel High Frequency (HF) transmitter-receiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A added an Ultra High Frequency (UHF) transmitter-receiver (ARC-52). The initial radio configuration of the B.2 closely resembled that of the B.1A; however, it ultimately incorporated the ARC-52, a combined V/UHF transmitter/receiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband modulation HF transmitter-receiver (Collins 618T).
Navigation and bombing systems comprised an H2S Mk9 radar coupled with a Mark 1 navigation bombing computer. Mark 2 aircraft featured an upgraded navigation bombing computer Mk2 capable of functioning up to 60,000 feet altitude while utilizing a modified synchro system; however, this raised the minimum operational altitude to 17,200 feet. Following the shift to low-level missions, the ballistic system from the Mk1 was retrofitted to restore altitude operation between 7,200 and 50,000 feet.
Additional navigational aids encompassed a Marconi radio compass (Automatic Direction Finder - ADF), GEE Mk3, Green Satin Doppler radar for groundspeed and drift angle measurements, radio and radar altimeters, as well as an instrument landing system. TACAN replaced GEE in both the B.1A and B.2 models by 1964, while around 1969 Decca Doppler 72 superseded Green Satin in the B.2 variant. Continuous positional updates were provided by a ground position indicator.
Vulcan B.2s were later equipped with a free-running dual-gyroscopic Heading Reference System (HRS) Mk.2 derived from the inertial platform used by the Blue Steel missile when carried onboard. This system furnished navigators with heading units allowing precise autopilot adjustments as fine as 0.1 degrees. Additionally, the B.2 (MRR) incorporated LORAN C navigation capabilities.
The initial Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) suite on the B.1A and B.2 included one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive radar warning receiver equipped with four antennas; Red Steer tail warning radar; and chaff dispensers. Most ECM components were housed within an extended tail cone, while a flat ECM aerial counterpoise plate was installed between the starboard tailpipes. Certain Blue Steel-equipped B.2 aircraft also had an additional aerial plate between port tailpipes due to signal obstruction caused by the lowered Blue Steel fin.
Subsequent upgrades on the B.2 encompassed replacement of one Red Shrimp jammer with an L-band jammer; installation of ARI 18146 X-band jammer supplanting Green Palm; enhancement to Red Steer Mk.2; addition of infrared decoy flares; and fitting of ARI 18228 Passive Warning Receiver featuring antennas that produced a squared top profile on the fin.[21][22]
Controls
Control of the aircraft was achieved through a fighter-style control stick and rudder bar, which managed the powered flight control surfaces. Each surface was actuated by a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except the rudder that utilized two units for redundancy, with one serving as a backup. The system incorporated artificial feel mechanisms and automatic stabilization through pitch and yaw dampers, alongside an automatic Mach trimmer.[23]
The B.1 model featured conventional flight instruments such as G4B compasses;[24] Mk.4 artificial horizons;[25] and zero reader flight display gauges.[26] Autopilot functionality in the B.1 was provided by a Smiths Mk10 system.[27] In contrast, the B.2 integrated these instruments into the Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), which included two beam compasses, two director-horizon units, and either an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot.[28] Starting in 1966, B.2 variants were equipped with the ARI 5959 terrain-following radar (TFR) produced by General Dynamics,[29] its outputs interfacing directly with the director-horizons.[30]
Regarding control surfaces, the B.1 employed four inboard elevators and four outboard ailerons.[31] These were replaced by eight elevon surfaces on the B.2.[32] The Vulcan was outfitted with six electrically actuated three-position airbrakes—four positioned on the upper centre section and two on the lower section.[33] Initially designed with four lower airbrakes, the outer pair was removed prior to operational deployment.[34] Additionally, a brake parachute was installed within the tail cone for deceleration assistance.[35]
Electrical and hydraulic systems
The primary electrical supply on the B.1/B.1A consisted of a 112 V DC system powered by four engine-driven starter-generators rated at 22.5 kW each. Backup electricity came from four 24 V batteries with a capacity of 40 Ah connected in series to provide 96 V output. Secondary electrical systems included 28 V DC, single-phase 115 V AC at a frequency of 1600 Hz, and three-phase 115 V AC at 400 Hz; these were derived via transformers and inverters from the main supply line. A single 24 V battery supported the 28 V DC system.[36]
To enhance efficiency and dependability,[37] the B.2 adopted a three-phase 200 V AC electrical system operating at 400 Hz supplied by four engine-driven constant-speed alternators rated at 40 kVA each. Engine ignition transitioned to air-starters powered by a ground-based Palouste compressor unit. Redundant power sources in case of main AC failure included two primary systems: a ram air turbine (RAT) housed beneath the port wing driving a 17 kVA alternator capable of operating down to approximately 20,000 ft (6,100 m), and an airborne auxiliary power unit (AAPP), consisting of a Rover gas turbine coupled to a 40 kVA alternator located within the starboard wing; this unit could be started below an altitude of 30,000 ft (9,100 m).[38] Secondary electrical supplies were provided through transformer-rectifier units delivering 28 V DC and rotary frequency converters supplying single-phase 115 V at 1600 Hz.[38]
The transition to an alternating current system marked a considerable advancement in design quality and reliability.[39] Each powered flying control unit (PFCU) contained a hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor—an arrangement now recognized as an electro-hydraulic actuator.[40] Since manual reversion was not incorporated into this design, complete electrical failure would cause loss of flight control authority entirely. Although standby batteries on the B.1 were intended to sustain flight for twenty minutes under emergency conditions, this estimation proved overly optimistic; two aircraft—XA891 and XA908—were lost due to power failures.[41]
The principal hydraulic system supplied pressure for multiple functions including landing gear extension and retraction with bogie trim adjustment; nosewheel centering and steering; wheel brakes equipped with Maxaret anti-skid devices; bomb bay door operation; and on the B.2 variant only, lowering of the AAPP air scoop mechanism. Hydraulic pressure was generated by three pumps mounted on engines Nos. 1, 2, and 3 respectively. An electrically driven hydraulic power pack (EHPP) provided additional capability for bomb door actuation and replenishing brake accumulators charged by compressed gas systems (initially air then nitrogen). For emergency landing gear deployment in case of hydraulic failure, a compressed air (later nitrogen) system was installed.[42]
Engine
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The Rolls-Royce Olympus, initially designated as the "Bristol BE.10 Olympus",[43][N 2] is a two-spool, axial-flow turbojet engine that powered the Vulcan bomber. Each aircraft housed four of these engines within the wings, arranged in pairs near the fuselage. The engine's development commenced in 1947, originally intended for a competing design by the Bristol Aeroplane Company to rival the Vulcan.[45]
Prior to the availability of the Olympus engine, the first Vulcan prototype VX770 conducted its initial flights powered by Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 engines delivering 6,500 lbf (29 kN) of thrust. These were soon replaced with Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.6 engines rated at 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust.[46] Subsequently, VX770 served as a test platform for the Rolls-Royce Conway.[47] The second prototype, VX777, initially flew equipped with Olympus 100 engines providing 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust before being upgraded to Olympus 101 powerplants.[48] When VX777 was fitted with a Phase 2C (B.2) wing in 1957, it carried Olympus 102 engines generating 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust.[49]
The earliest B.1 models were powered by Olympus 101 engines; later units received Olympus 102 variants. Through overhaul processes, all Olympus 102 engines were upgraded to Olympus 104 standards, achieving a thrust output of 13,500 lbf (60 kN).[50] The initial B.2 variant flew with the second-generation Olympus 200 series,[51] whose design work began in 1952.[52] Later B.2 aircraft were equipped with either uprated Olympus 201 or Olympus 301 engines. The Olympus 201 was redesignated as the Olympus 202 upon installation of a rapid air starter.[53] This engine family was further developed into an afterburning (reheat) variant for use in the cancelled TSR-2 strike/reconnaissance aircraft and the supersonic passenger airliner Concorde.[20]
At approximately ninety percent power output, the Vulcan's engines produced a characteristic "howl" sound,[54] caused by the specific air intake configuration; this distinctive noise became a popular feature at public airshows.[55][56]
Introduction
The RAF welcomed its initial Vulcan B.1, designated XA897, in September 1956, which promptly embarked on a global circumnavigation. This journey served as a significant showcase of the aircraft's range and operational capabilities, while also fulfilling diplomatic roles through goodwill visits to multiple countries. Throughout their service life, Vulcans frequently traveled to various nations and remote regions within the Commonwealth to demonstrate military support and protection.[57] Unfortunately, this inaugural tour ended in tragedy; on 1 October 1956, XA897 was destroyed in a fatal crash while landing under adverse weather conditions at London Heathrow Airport.[58]
In January 1957, the first two Vulcans were delivered to 230 OCU, initiating crew training on 21 February that year.[41] The inaugural OCU graduating class, No. 1 Course, qualified on 21 May 1957 and subsequently formed the initial flight of No. 83 Squadron.[41] No. 83 Squadron became the first operational unit to operate the bomber, initially utilizing Vulcans loaned from the OCU before receiving its own first aircraft on 11 July 1956.[41] By September of that year, No. 83 Squadron had been equipped with several Vulcans.[59] The second OCU course also contributed personnel to form a flight within No. 83 Squadron; furthermore, trained crews from subsequent courses established 101 Squadron.[41] The final aircraft from the initial batch of twenty-five was delivered to No. 101 Squadron by the close of 1957.[41]
Starting in 1959, in-flight refuelling systems were introduced to extend Vulcan mission endurance and range; this involved converting several Valiant bombers into tankers specifically for refuelling Vulcans.[60] However, maintaining continuous airborne patrols proved impractical, leading to the discontinuation of refuelling operations across the Vulcan fleet in 1965 following the retirement of Valiant tanker aircraft.[60]
Vulcans and other V-force bombers regularly deployed to the Far East, notably Singapore, where a dedicated nuclear-weapons storage facility was established in 1959.[61] These deployments supported UK commitments to SEATO missions and often involved joint exercises designed to assess allied defensive capabilities.[61] During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, plans were made for deploying three squadrons of V-bombers along with forty-eight Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons to the region; however, this deployment was ultimately not executed. Vulcans conducted training for both conventional and nuclear roles within this theater.[61] In the early seventies, the RAF opted to station two Vulcan squadrons permanently overseas as part of the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus. This overseas presence ended by the mid-1970s due to escalating Cypriot intercommunal violence.[62]
The Vulcan undertook several extended-range flights; notably in June 1961, one completed a distance of approximately 18,507 km from RAF Scampton to Sydney within just over twenty hours with three mid-air refuellings.Template:Fix/category[citation needed] During the '60s and '70s, Vulcans participated in airshows and static exhibitions across the United States and competed in events such as the Strategic Air Command (SAC) Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition held at bases including Barksdale AFB, Louisiana and former McCoy AFB, Florida. Additionally, Vulcans took part in the large-scale Operation Sky Shield exercise in 1961 which tested NORAD’s response capabilities against simulated Soviet air attacks involving B-47s, B-52s, and a limited number of Vulcans targeting cities like New York, Chicago, and Washington D.C.; these results remained classified until their release in 1997.[63] The Vulcan successfully evaded interception by USAF fighters during the "Giant Voice" exercise conducted in 1974.[64]
Nuclear deterrent
The Vulcan initially served as the carrier for the United Kingdom's first independent nuclear weapon, the Blue Danube gravity bomb, marking Britain's entry into nuclear deterrence.[65] This early fission bomb featured a relatively low kiloton yield and was developed prior to the United States' first hydrogen bomb test. Alongside these, U.S.-supplied Mk 5 bombs were provided under the Project E initiative, later complemented by the British tactical nuclear weapon known as Red Beard.[66] While the UK pursued its own hydrogen bomb program, an interim solution was implemented using the Violet Club bomb—an enhanced version of the Blue Danube casing housing the Green Grass warhead, a pure-fission device with an estimated yield of 400-kiloton-of-TNT (1.7 PJ), bridging the gap until thermonuclear weapons were ready.[67][N 3] Only five Violet Club bombs were deployed before the warhead was integrated into a more advanced weapon system designated as Yellow Sun Mk.1.[67]
Subsequently, the Yellow Sun Mk 2 utilized Red Snow, a British-produced adaptation of the American W28 thermonuclear warhead.[67] This marked the first deployment of a British thermonuclear device and was operational on both Vulcan and Handley Page Victor aircraft. The Valiant bomber continued to operate U.S. nuclear weapons assigned under dual-key arrangements with SACEUR. Meanwhile, Red Beard weapons were stationed in Singapore for use by Vulcan and Victor bombers.[70] Beginning in 1963, three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s and two Victor B.2 squadrons were equipped with the rocket-powered Blue Steel stand-off missile, which carried the Red Snow warhead with a yield of approximately 1.1 Mt (4.6 PJ).[71]
From an operational standpoint, RAF Bomber Command collaborated with SAC under the Single Integrated Operational Plan starting in 1958 to cover all significant Soviet targets; by late 1959, 108 RAF V-bombers had designated targets within this plan.[72] From 1962 onwards, each RAF bomber base maintained one aircraft per squadron armed with nuclear weapons on continuous Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) status.[72] Vulcans assigned to QRA were required to be airborne within four minutes following an alert notification—this response time corresponded to the estimated interval between detection of a Soviet nuclear strike launch and its impact on Britain.[73] The closest instance in which Vulcans approached deployment during a potential nuclear crisis occurred during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis when Bomber Command escalated to Alert Condition 3 but returned to normal readiness in early November.[74]
Plans had been made for equipping Vulcans with the Skybolt missile system to replace Blue Steel; Vulcan B.2s were designed to carry two Skybolt missiles mounted under their wings. The final batch of 28 B.2 aircraft rolling off production lines were outfitted with pylons for Skybolt carriage.[75][76] A proposed B.3 variant featuring an extended wingspan capable of carrying up to six Skybolts was introduced in 1960.[77] However, following U.S. President John F. Kennedy’s cancellation of the Skybolt program in 1962—an action influenced by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and resulting in the Skybolt Crisis—the Blue Steel missile remained in service. Until the Royal Navy assumed responsibility for nuclear deterrence via Polaris-armed submarines, Vulcans adapted their tactics by flying at high altitude during transit and descending to low levels near targets to evade defenses while deploying parachute-retarded bombs such as the WE.177B.[78] Prior to introduction of WE177 laydown delivery mode, attack profiles involved a pop-up maneuver that allowed arming time for Yellow Sun weapons: typically climbing to around 11,000 feet before releasing in level flight; later techniques included climbing at specified angles and distances from targets to minimize exposure to surface-to-air missiles (SAM). For instance, Mk 2 Vulcans equipped with Series 301 engines and Yellow Sun warheads would execute a pop-up at approximately 18,450 yards from target at a climb angle of about 15°, releasing at roughly 10,500 feet altitude. Given their original design for high-altitude flight, Vulcans operated at limited low-level training speeds (240 knots cruise with dashes up to 350 knots) to preserve airframe integrity; wartime mission planning allowed low-level speeds up to 325 knots with maximum speeds reaching around 375 knots and a one-time dash up to approximately 415 knots for short durations likely corresponding to final attack phases. RAF Air Vice Marshal Ron Dick—a former Vulcan pilot—noted doubts about effectiveness flying at low altitudes against Soviet defenses.[79]
Following introduction of British Polaris submarines and withdrawal of Blue Steel in 1970, Vulcans continued employing WE.177B bombs in tactical nuclear strike roles as part of Britain's NATO commitments in Europe; however, peacetime readiness no longer required aircraft on fifteen-minute alert status.[78] Two squadrons based in Cyprus supported Near East Air Force operations under Central Treaty Organization strategic strike responsibilities. After WE.177B and Vulcan retirement, aircraft such as the Blackburn Buccaneer, SEPECAT Jaguar, and Panavia Tornado sustained WE.177C deployments until its phase-out in 1998.[80] While not directly replacing all Vulcan capabilities, the multi-role Tornado interdictor/strike bomber assumed many roles previously fulfilled by Vulcan bombers.[81]
Traditional mission
While the Vulcan was primarily equipped for nuclear weapon delivery during its service, it also fulfilled a secondary role involving conventional ordnance. In conventional combat scenarios, the Vulcan was capable of carrying up to 21 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs within its internal bomb bay.[82] From the 1960s onwards, Vulcan squadrons regularly engaged in conventional bombing exercises; crews were trained to execute both nuclear and conventional strike operations.[83] Conventional attack profiles varied according to anticipated defensive measures. For targets protected by enemy fighters and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), a laydown delivery using a retard tail unit (Mk 117) was preferred. When facing Soviet SA2 Guideline missile defenses, the Vulcan could perform a pop-up maneuver to approximately 2,500 feet—positioned below the SAM engagement zone and above the self-damage threshold for free-fall bombs. Against air defense artillery, an attack profile involving a pop-up to around 8,000 feet was used to reduce exposure to gunfire, allowing employment of automatic bombing calculations via the Navigation and Bombing System Calc 3.
The Vulcan’s only active combat sorties occurred late in its operational life during the 1982 Falklands War. It was deployed against Argentine forces occupying the Falkland Islands. These missions became known as the Black Buck raids, with each Vulcan tasked to fly approximately 3,889 mi (6,259 km) from Ascension Island to reach Stanley. To enable this extended range, Victor tankers provided essential mid-air refueling; each sortie consumed roughly 1,100,000 imp gal (5,000,000 L) of fuel.[84]
Preparations for the five Vulcans assigned to these missions commenced on 9 April.[85][86] Each aircraft underwent modifications including bomb bay alterations, reactivation of long-unused in-flight refueling systems, integration of a new navigation system based on technology from the Vickers VC10, and upgrades to various onboard electronics. Additionally, new pylons were installed beneath the wings to accommodate an electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod and Shrike anti-radar missiles on wing hardpoints.
The initial sortie took place on 1 May when a single Vulcan (XM607) conducted a bombing run over Port Stanley, targeting the airfield’s runway and scoring a direct hit that rendered it unusable for fighter operations. This strike was promptly supported by attacks against anti-aircraft defenses carried out by Royal Navy British Aerospace Sea Harriers.[87] Two additional missions involved missile strikes on radar installations while two planned sorties were subsequently cancelled.[84] At that time, these raids set records as some of the longest-distance bombing missions ever attempted.[82][88] The Vulcans’ ECM capabilities effectively jammed Argentine radar systems; their presence reduced the risk posed to other British aircraft operating in the area.[89]
On 3 June 1982, during "Black Buck 6," Vulcan B.2 XM597 from No. 50 Squadron targeted Argentine radar sites at Stanley airfield. While attempting refueling for its return leg to Ascension Island, the refueling probe broke off, leaving insufficient fuel reserves and forcing an emergency diversion to Galeão Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro, in neutral Brazil. Prior to landing, sensitive documents were discarded along with two AGM-45 Shrike missiles—though one failed to deploy. Following a distress call and escorted by Brazilian Air Force Northrop F-5 fighters, the Vulcan made an emergency landing at Rio with minimal fuel remaining.[90] The aircraft and crew were detained there until hostilities concluded nine days later.[91]
Reconnaissance
In November 1973, following the scheduled disbandment of No. 543 Squadron which operated Victor SR.2 aircraft, No. 27 Squadron was re-established at RAF Scampton, taking on the maritime radar reconnaissance mission with Vulcan bombers as its new platform.[92][N 4] The unit conducted surveillance flights over waters surrounding the British Isles, including the strategically vital GIUK gap between Iceland and the UK, operating at high altitude while utilizing the Vulcan's H2S radar system to track maritime traffic. During peacetime operations, this radar data was supplemented by low-level visual confirmation and photographic documentation of targets deemed significant. In wartime scenarios, however, the Vulcans would delegate visual identification tasks to Buccaneers or Canberras and assume a command role in directing Buccaneer strikes against enemy vessels.[94] Initially outfitted with several B.2 models,[95] the squadron ultimately operated nine B.2 (MRR) aircraft—unofficially designated SR.2.[96][97] Modifications for this role involved removing the terrain-following radar (TFR) and its characteristic thimble-shaped radome, while integrating a LORAN C navigation system. Externally, these aircraft featured a glossy paint scheme with a pale grey underside designed to withstand exposure to sea spray.[96]
Additionally, No. 27 Squadron assumed the secondary mission of air sampling from No. 543 Squadron.[96] This task required flying through radioactive plumes to gather samples of fallout from both surface and subterranean nuclear detonations for analysis at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment in Aldermaston.[98] Five of the squadron's aircraft were equipped with small pylons on now-unused Skybolt hardpoints to carry sampling pods adapted from drop tanks.[N 5] These pods collected airborne particles on filters during flight, complemented by an additional smaller "localiser" pod mounted on the port wing inside the main pylons.[93][97][99]
The squadron was disbanded at Scampton in March 1982, with its maritime radar reconnaissance responsibilities transitioning to the RAF's fleet of Nimrod aircraft.[97]
Aerial refuelling function
Following the conclusion of the Falklands conflict in 1982, the Vulcan B.2 was scheduled for retirement from RAF service that same year.[100] However, the Falklands operation had significantly depleted the airframe fatigue limits of the RAF's Victor tanker fleet. Although tanker conversions of the Vickers VC10 had been commissioned in 1979,[101] and Lockheed TriStar tankers were to be procured following the conflict,[102] as an interim solution six Vulcans were modified into single-point refuelling tankers. This conversion involved removing electronic countermeasure jammers from the tail's ECM bay and installing a single hose drum unit in their place.[86] Additionally, a cylindrical bomb-bay fuel tank was installed, increasing fuel capacity to nearly 100,000 lb (45,000 kg).[86][103]
Approval to convert these six aircraft was granted on 4 May 1982.[104] Remarkably, within just 50 days of authorization, the first Vulcan tanker, XH561, was delivered to RAF Waddington.[86][104] The Vulcan K.2 tankers were operated by No. 50 Squadron alongside three Vulcan B.2s, providing support for UK air defence until the squadron was disbanded in March 1984.[105]
Vulcan Display Flight
Following No. 50 Squadron's disbandment, two Vulcans remained active with the RAF performing aerial displays as part of the Vulcan Display Flight, which was based at Waddington but managed by No. 55 Squadron stationed at RAF Marham. Initially using XL426 for demonstrations, that aircraft was sold in 1986 and replaced by XH558, which commenced displays in 1985. The VDF continued operations with XH558 through to 1992, ceasing after the Ministry of Defence deemed the costs unsustainable amid budget reductions. Both preserved aircraft survived post-service; however, a third example, XH560—held in reserve during early years—was eventually scrapped.
Engine test platforms
- The prototype VX770 initially equipped with Sapphire engines had them swapped for four 15,000 lbf (67 kN) Rolls-Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofans in 1957 and was transferred to Rolls-Royce for use as a Conway test platform.[106] It operated with these early turbofans until its fatal accident in September 1958.[107]
- The first Vulcan B.1 XA889 served as the test aircraft for flight clearances of Olympus engines models 102 and 104.[108]
- In spring 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA891 was outfitted with four Olympus 200 engines for extensive flight testing but crashed during a routine test flight in July of the same year.[109]
- Vulcan B.1 XA894 flew equipped with five Olympus engines: four standard Mk.101s plus a reheated Olympus 320 intended for the BAC TSR-2 mounted in an underslung nacelle; this aircraft was destroyed by a ground fire at Filton on December 3, 1962.[107]
- Withdrawn from RAF use in June 1964, Vulcan B.1 XA896 was slated for conversion into a test bed for the Bristol Siddeley BS100 vectored thrust turbofan designed for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154 project; however, following cancellation of the P.1154 in February 1965, XA896 was scrapped before conversion.[110]
- After sustaining damage in a landing incident in 1958 and subsequent rebuilding, Vulcan B.1 XA902 replaced VX770 as a Conway test bed fitted with four RCo.11 engines; later modifications replaced two inner Conways with Rolls-Royce Spey engines, flying first in this configuration on October 12, 1961.[107]
- Surplus to Blue Steel missile trials requirements, Vulcan B.1 XA903 was converted similarly to XA894 to serve as a flight test platform for the Olympus 593 engine installation intended for Concorde; it first flew on October 1, 1966 and continued testing until June 1971.[111] In April 1973, XA903 began flights fitted with an underslung Rolls-Royce RB.199 turbofan intended for the Panavia Tornado and was the last B.1 model to fly before retirement in February 1979.[112]
- Vulcan B.2 XH557 was utilized by British Aircraft Corporation (BSEL) to develop the Olympus 301 engine and made its maiden flight with this larger powerplant in May of 1961; it returned to Woodford Aerodrome in 1964 for refurbishment prior to rejoining RAF service.[113]
Variants
- B.1
- The original production model. Early units featured straight leading edges, which were later updated to the phase 2 (kinked) wing design. Initial finishes were silver, subsequently replaced by anti-flash white. Between 1959 and 1963, many were upgraded to the B.1A configuration. The final unmodified B.1s serving with No. 230 OCU in the RAF were retired by 1966. The last flight involving a B.1, specifically an engine testbed XA903, occurred in March 1979.
- B.1A
- This variant was a B.1 equipped with an electronic countermeasures (ECM) suite housed in an enlarged tail cone similar to that of the B.2. Unlike the B.2, B.1As did not receive significant wing reinforcement for low-level operations and were phased out between 1966 and 1967.
- B.2
- An enhanced iteration of the B.1 featuring a larger, thinner Phase 2C wing and powered by Olympus 201-202 or Olympus 301 engines. Electrical systems were upgraded with Automatic Approach Power Plant (AAPP) and a Ram Air Turbine (RAT). ECM capabilities mirrored those of the B.1A. Most aircraft received a terrain-following radar (TFR) within a nose thimble radome during the mid-1960s. From the mid-1970s, new radar warning receiver antennas installed on the tail fin gave it a squared-off appearance. Although some sources mention a Vulcan B.2A—either referring to B.2s fitted with Olympus Mk 301 engines or those modified for Blue Steel missile carriage—the official designation remained B.2 for all roles except maritime reconnaissance and tanker variants.
- B.2 (MRR)
- Nine B.2 aircraft were converted for maritime radar reconnaissance missions, with the TFR system removed. Out of these, five were further adapted for air sampling duties and featured a distinctive glossy finish with light grey undersides.
- K.2
- Six B.2 airframes transformed into air-to-air refuelling tankers equipped with Mark 17 hose drum units semi-recessed into the tail cone and lacking TFR systems. These tankers carried three bomb-bay drum tanks and uniquely among Vulcans had the capability to jettison fuel in emergencies.
- B.3
- A conceptual model intended as a long-range missile carrier capable of holding up to six Skybolt missiles for missions lasting up to 12 hours. This variant was never constructed.
Production
Woodford Aerodrome was responsible for assembling a total of 134 production Vulcans, comprising 45 units of the B.1 model and 89 of the B.2 type, with deliveries concluding in January 1965.
| Contract date | Quantity | Variant | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 Jul 1948 | Template:Right | Prototypes | Two prototype aircraft were delivered in August 1952 and September 1953. |
| 14 Aug 1952 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.1 | The first production aircraft flew on 4 February 1955, with deliveries spanning from June 1955 through December 1957. |
| 30 Sep 1954 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.1 | Delivered between January 1958 and April 1959. |
| 30 Sep 1954 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Deliveries took place from September 1959 until December 1960. |
| 31 Mar 1955 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered between January and May 1961. |
| 25 Feb 1956 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered from July 1961 through November 1962. |
| 22 Jan 1958 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered between February 1963 and January 1965; one unit was retained as a static test airframe without flying. |
| Total | Template:Right |
Operators
- Aircraft from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment used for testing and assessment purposes
- Royal Air Force
- 9 Squadron operated the B.2 variant between 1962 and 1982
- 12 Squadron flew the B.2 from 1962 until 1967
- 27 Squadron utilized the B.2 from 1961 to 1972, then transitioned to the B.2 (MRR) model from 1973 to 1982
- 35 Squadron employed the B.2 between 1962 and 1982
- 44 Squadron operated the B.1/B.1A from 1960 to 1967 and subsequently the B.2 from 1966 through 1982
- 50 Squadron flew the B.1/B.1A from 1961 to 1966, switched to the B.2 from 1966 to 1984, and also operated the K.2 variant between 1982 and 1984
- 83 Squadron, as the initial Vulcan squadron, flew the B.1/B.1A from 1957 to 1960, then the B.2 until 1969
- 101 Squadron used the B.1/B1A between 1957 and 1967, followed by the B.2 up to 1982
- 617 Squadron operated OB.1/B1A models from 1958 to 1961, then transitioned to the B.2 variant until 1981
- 230 OCU, active from 1956 to 1981, was the first unit to operate Vulcans, providing conversion and operational training for Vulcan crews
- Bomber Command Development Unit
- The Vulcan To The Sky Trust maintained G-VLCN (previously XH558), which was airworthy until 2015 and based at Doncaster Sheffield Airport until June 2023
- Various aircraft were additionally flown under Ministry of Supply/Aviation oversight for evaluation and trials by Avro, Bristol Siddeley Engines, Rolls-Royce, and the Blind Landing Experimental Unit (BLEU)
Bases
- RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus: hosted two squadrons flying B.2s from 1969 through 1975
- No. 9 Squadron relocated here in 1969 from Cottesmore and remained until returning to Waddington in 1975
- No. 35 Squadron also moved from Cottesmore in 1969, departing for Scampton in 1975
- RAF Coningsby: home to three squadrons operating B.2s between 1962 and 1964
- No. 9 Squadron formed here in 1962 for B.2 operations before moving to Cottesmore in 1964
- No. 12 Squadron established in 1962 for B.2 service, relocating to Cottesmore in 1964
- No. 35 Squadron began here in 1962 with the B.2 before transferring to Cottesmore in ’64
- RAF Cottesmore: hosted three squadrons during the period from ’64 to ’69
- No. 9 Squadron arrived here in ’64 from Coningsby and departed for Akrotiri in ’69
- No. 12 Squadron moved here in ’64 from Coningsby until its disbandment in ’67
- No. 35 Squadron transferred here in ’64, later relocating to Akrotiri in ’69
- RAF Finningley
- No. 101 Squadron formed here in ’57 as the second operational B.1 squadron before moving to Waddington in ’61
- The 230 OCU relocated here in ’61 from Waddington, remaining until its move to Scampton in ’69
- RAF Scampton: hosted four different squadrons at various times between ’61 and ’82
- No. 27 Squadron operated here with B.2s from ’61 until disbanding in ’72; it reformed with the B.2 (MRR) variant from ’73 through ’82
- No. 35 Squadron moved here from Akrotiri in ’75 and continued flying B.2s until disbanding in March ’82
- No. 83 Squadron reformed at Scampton in ’60 with B.2s after previously operating B.1/B.1As at Waddington; it disbanded in ’69
- No. 617 Squadron formed here in ’58 with B.1s and later operated B.2s until disbanding in ’81
- The 230 OCU relocated here from Finningley in ’69 and remained active until its disbandment in ’81
- RAF Waddington: served as home base for multiple squadrons intermittently between ‘57 and ‘84; recognized as both first and last operational Vulcan base
- No. 9 Squadron returned here from Akrotiri in ’75 until disbandment in ‘82
- No. 44 Squadron formed here in ‘60 operating B.1/B1A models, converting to B.2s by ‘66 before disbanding in ‘82
- No. 50 Squadron established here in ‘61 with B.1/B1A aircraft, converted to B.2s by ‘66; additionally flew tanker K variants starting ‘82 until disbanding ‘84
- No. 83 Squadron initially formed here as first operational squadron flying B.1s between ‘57 and ‘60 before reforming later that year at Scampton as a B.2 unit
- No 101 Squadron relocated here from Finningley in ‘61 with B-type variants, converting fully to B.2 by ‘67 before disbanding ‘82
- The 230 OCU originated here in ‘56 for Vulcan crew training before moving successively to Finningley (’61) and finally Scampton (’70)
V-Bomber dispersal airfields
Upon the escalation to wartime conditions, V Bomber squadrons were instructed to rapidly deploy four aircraft each to one of 26 designated dispersal airfields strategically located across the United Kingdom. During the early 1960s, the RAF procured 20 Beagle Basset communication aircraft specifically to transport crews to these dispersal locations. However, the operational significance of these aircraft diminished swiftly as the principal nuclear deterrent role transitioned to the Royal Navy's Polaris missile program.
Accidents and incidents
- On 1 October 1956, Vulcan B.1 XA897—the first unit delivered—crashed at London Heathrow Airport during Operation Tasman Flight, a goodwill tour encompassing Australia and New Zealand. After executing a ground-controlled approach in adverse weather conditions, the aircraft impacted terrain approximately 700 yards short of the runway just as engine thrust was increased. This collision likely caused failure of the drag links on the main landing gear, forcing it rearwards and damaging the trailing edge of the wing. Following this initial impact, XA897 briefly regained airborne status. The pilot, Squadron Leader D. R. Howard, along with co-pilot Air Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst, AOC-in-C Bomber Command, both ejected safely; however, the remaining four occupants—including a reserve pilot and an Avro company representative—perished when the aircraft crashed again and disintegrated.
- In 1957, Vulcan B.1 XA892, assigned to the A&AEE at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing, inadvertently exceeded an indicated Mach number of 1.04, alerting its crew to having reached supersonic flight. Commanded by Flt Lt Milt Cottee (RAAF) and co-piloted by Flt Lt Ray Bray (RAF), the aircraft was flown at approximately 478 mph and an IMN of 0.98 with a load factor of 3 g. After climbing to 35,000 feet and initiating a dive intending to reach target speed at 27,000 feet, the throttles were closed and full up-elevator applied near target altitude; however, XA892 continued pitching nose-down unexpectedly. Cottee considered inverting the aircraft but instead deployed speed brakes which successfully slowed it down despite exceeding their maximum operating speed. The aircraft recovered past vertical attitude near 18,000 feet and leveled off at around 8,000 feet without generating a sonic boom; thus, it is unlikely true Mach 1 was attained. Post-flight inspection revealed deformation in a rear bulkhead.
- On 20 September 1958, during an engine performance test flight with a flypast at RAF Syerston's Battle of Britain At Home event, prototype Vulcan VX770 was piloted by a Rolls-Royce test pilot. While rolling right and climbing slightly along the main runway, the starboard wing failed catastrophically due to spar collapse. The aircraft entered a dive engulfed in flames on that wing and crashed, killing all four crew onboard as well as three personnel in a nearby controllers' caravan. Investigations suggested possible causes including pilot error, metal fatigue from intake vibrations, or insufficient maintenance practices.
- On 24 October 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA908 from No. 83 Squadron RAF crashed east of Detroit, Michigan following a complete electrical failure at approximately 30,000 feet. Although an emergency backup system should have provided around twenty minutes of power enabling diversion to local airports, it failed after only three minutes due to a short circuit locking flight controls. En route to Lincoln AFB in Nebraska, XA908 entered a steep dive before impacting terrain and creating a crater approximately 40 feet in diameter. Despite significant property damage on the ground and one hospitalization among civilians, no fatalities occurred on the surface; all six crew members died—including the co-pilot who had ejected but whose body was recovered months later from Lake St Clair. The crew were interred at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Trenton alongside RAF student pilots who had died during WWII nearby.
- On 24 July 1959, Vulcan B.1 XA891 suffered an electrical malfunction during an engine test flight shortly after takeoff. Generator warning lights illuminated alongside loss of busbar voltage prompted Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison to climb to 14,000 feet while steering clear of populated areas as the AEO attempted repairs. When control could not be restored, Harrison ordered rear compartment crew to bail out and instructed co-pilot ejection before ejecting himself successfully; all survived while XA891 crashed near Kingston upon Hull—the first full crew escape from a Vulcan.
- On 26 October 1959 at Wellington International Airport (formerly Rongotai Airport), Vulcan B.1 XH498 participated in an airshow marking its opening. After a touch-and-go on Runway 34 followed by an attempted full-stop landing amid turbulence and wind shear conditions, XH498 landed short of threshold causing damage to port undercarriage attachments and fuel lines after clipping an embankment near Moa Point. The port wing tip nearly contacted runway surface before lifting off again spilling fuel over spectators gathered on adjacent apron areas. Pilot actions prevented disaster; XH498 proceeded safely to RNZAF Ohakea for emergency landing on nose and starboard gear only with minimal additional damage. A UK repair team restored airworthiness before it resumed service until October 1967.
- On 16 September 1960 at Filton Airport near Bristol Siddeley Engines facilities for Olympus 301 engine testing, Vulcan B.2 XH557 touched down halfway along runway amidst poor weather conditions but failed to stop due to insufficient braking distance despite deploying drag chute; captain applied full throttle for go-around causing jet blast that severely damaged nearby "Runway Garage" property including petrol pumps flattened, streetlights toppled on A38 road, railing destruction and multiple vehicle windshield breakages before diverting to St Mawgan.
- On 12 June 1963 over Aberdeenshire Scotland during low-level training exercise Vulcan B.1A XH477 from No. 50 Squadron collided with terrain resulting in fatal crash that claimed lives of all five crew members aboard.
- On 11 May 1964 during demonstration flight from Boscombe Down showing very low speed/high descent rate maneuvers Vulcan B.2 XH535 entered spin condition; deployment of landing parachute temporarily arrested spin but it resumed thereafter leading commander to order crew evacuation at roughly 2,500 feet altitude—pilot and co-pilot successfully ejected while rear compartment crew presumably incapacitated by g-forces did not survive.
- On 16 July 1964 over Anglesey Vulcan B.1A XA909 experienced mid-air explosion attributed to No.4 engine bearing failure causing shutdown of engines No.3 and No.4 plus severe starboard wing damage that compromised control surfaces and produced unreliable airspeed readings; entire crew evacuated safely within minutes.
- On 7 October 1964 during asymmetric power practice approach overshoot at Coningsby Vulcan B.2 XM601 crashed when co-pilot applied full throttle simultaneously across engines leading to uncontrollable asymmetric thrust exceeding rudder authority resulting in spin crash with total crew fatalities.
- On 25 May 1965 Vulcan B.2 XM576 crash-landed at Scampton shortly after delivery rendering aircraft beyond repair within one year.
- On 11 February 1966 Vulcan B.2 XH536 from IX Squadron Cottesmore Wing collided with Brecon Beacons terrain near Fan Bwlch Chwyth summit during low-level exercise amid snow-covered hills and cloud ceiling extending down to about 1,400 feet; all crew lost their lives.
- On 6 April 1967 during takeoff run at RAF Scampton Vulcan B.2 XL385 caught fire due to Olympus turbine disc failure while carrying Blue Steel missile training round; all onboard including Air Training Corps cadet escaped unharmed though aircraft was destroyed by fire.
- On 30 January 1968 following bomb-bay overheat indications Vulcan B.2 XM604 lost control during overshoot maneuver at RAF Cottesmore resulting in fatalities among rear crew while pilots ejected; accident caused by failure of Olympus LP turbine disc post-return.
- On 7 January 1971 No.44 Squadron’s Vulcan B.2 XM610 suffered blade fatigue failure in No.1 engine causing fuel system damage and fire; crew escaped safely prior to crash landing near Wingate in County Durham.
- On 14 October 1975 during emergency landing approach at RAF Luqa Malta Vulcan B.2 XM645 undershot runway losing left undercarriage leg which damaged airframe leading to breakup over Żabbar town; pilot and co-pilot ejected successfully but five other crew perished while debris caused one civilian death and multiple injuries among local population.
- On 17 January 1977 No.101 Squadron’s Vulcan B.2 XM600 crashed near Spilsby Lincolnshire following bomb-bay fire warning then engine fire indications prompting shutdown of No.2 engine; subsequent fire originating near deployed ram air turbine (RAT) led captain to order evacuation—rear crew escaped around six thousand feet altitude while pilots ejected lower down with captain surviving due to parachute snagging cables; cause identified as electrical arcing damaging fuel pipe igniting fire.
- On 12 August 1978 during unauthorized display flight at Naval Air Station Glenview Illinois USA Vulcan B.2 XL390 from No.617 Squadron stalled at low altitude after poorly executed wingover maneuver following low-level pass below approximately one hundred feet resulting in fatal crash killing entire crew.
- On return from Falklands mission on 3 June 1982 Vulcan XM597 suffered probe breakage during aerial refueling attempt leaving insufficient fuel for planned destination Ascension Island; pilot jettisoned classified materials over Atlantic then diverted into Brazilian airspace where escorted by Brazilian Air Force fighters leading to diplomatic negotiations; after seven days detained aircraft released with condition not to participate further in conflict.
- On takeoff roll initiation at Robin Hood Airport Doncaster on 28 May 2012 Vulcan B.2 XH558 experienced simultaneous failure of both port engines caused by accidental ingestion of silica gel desiccant bags left inside air intake post-maintenance; engines destroyed instantly but fire suppression systems prevented structural or control damage allowing safe aborted takeoff with pilot maintaining ground control; aircraft returned successfully to flight operations on July third that year.
Surviving aircraft
A number of Vulcan aircraft remain preserved in museums across the United Kingdom and North America (including the United States and Canada). One notable example, Avro Vulcan XH558 (registration G-VLCN), known as the Spirit of Great Britain, served as a Royal Air Force display aircraft within the Vulcan Display Flight until 1993. After being retired from flight status, it was subsequently restored to airworthiness by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and operated as a civilian display aircraft from 2008 until 2015, when it was retired again due to engineering considerations. In its current status, XH558 is maintained at Doncaster Sheffield Airport as a taxiable exhibit, a role shared by two other extant Vulcans: Avro Vulcan XL426 (G-VJET), stationed at Southend Airport, and Avro Vulcan XM655 (G-VULC), located at Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield. Additionally, XJ823, a B.2 variant, is on exhibit at the Solway Aviation Museum at Carlisle Lake District Airport. The aircraft XM607 remains under restoration at RAF Waddington, where it has functioned as a gate guardian since retirement. Meanwhile, XM594 is displayed at the Newark Air Museum in Newark, Nottinghamshire, England.
Specifications (B.1)
Comparison of Versions
| B.1 | B.1A | B.2 | B.2 (MRR) | K.2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wingspan | 99 ft 5 in (30.30 m) | 111 ft 0 in (33.83 m) | |||
| Length | 97 ft 1 in (29.59 m) | 105 ft 6 in (32.16 m) [99 ft 11 in (30.45 m) excluding probe] | |||
| Height | 26 ft 6 in (8.08 m) | 27 ft 1 in (8.26 m) | |||
| Wing area | 3,554 sq ft (330.2 m2)[116] | 3,964 sq ft (368.3 m2)[116] | |||
| Maximum takeoff weight | 167,000 lb (76,000 kg) 185,000 lb (84,000 kg) (operational requirement) |
204,000 lb (93,000 kg) | |||
! Cruising speed
! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.86 (indicated)
|}
! Maximum speed
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.95 indicated
! style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.93 indicated
(Mach 0.92 with 301 engines)
! style="text-align:center;" |Mach 0.93 indicated
! style="text-align:center;" |Unknown
|}
! Service ceiling
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |56,000 ft[116]
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |Between 45,000 ft and 60,000 ft[nb 1]
|}
! Electrical system
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |112 V direct current
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |115/200 V alternating current Three-phase electric power 400 Hertz
|}
! Emergency electrical system
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Battery powered
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |Ram air turbine and Auxiliary power unit (Airborne Auxiliary Power Plant)
|}
! Engines
! style="text-align:center;" |4 × Rolls-Royce Olympus (Bristol Olympus 101, 102 or 104)
! style="text-align:center;" |4 × Bristol Olympus 104
! style="text-align:center;" |4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series, 301
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series
|}
! Fuel capacity (main)
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |9,280 imp gal (11,140 US gal)[convert: invalid option] / 74,240 lb (33,675 kg) Jet fuel (avtur)[nb 2]
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |9,260 imp gal (11,120 US gal)[convert: invalid option] / 74,080 lb (33,602 kg)
|}
! Fuel capacity (bomb bay)
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |None
! style="text-align:center;" |0–1,990 imp gal (0–2,390 US gal)[convert: invalid option] / 0–15,920 lb (0–7,221 kg)
! style="text-align:center;" |1,990 imp gal (2,390 US gal)[convert: invalid option] / 15,920 lb (7,221 kg)[nb 3]
! style ="text-align:center;" |2,985 imp gal (3,585 US gal; 13,570 L) / 23,880 lb (10,830 kg)[nb 4]
|}
! Powered flight controls
! colspan ="2" style ="text-align:center;" |One rudder (duplex), four elevators, four ailerons
! colspan ="3" style ="text-align:center;" |One rudder (duplex), eight elevons
|}
! Armament
! colspan ="2" style ="text-align:center;" |
One free-fall nuclear bomb or
21 × Template:Convert 1000 lb abbr=on conventional bombs
!
style ="text-align:center;" |
One Blue Steel missile or
one free-fall nuclear bomb or
21 × Template:Convert 1000 lb abbr=on conventional bombs
!
colspan ="2" style ="text-align:center;" |
None
|}
Prominent media appearances
See also
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Notes
- ↑ An order for 25 production units was placed in July 1952. An equal number of Handley Page’s competing design, later known as Victor, were also commissioned.[12]
- ↑ Bristol Aero Engines combined with Armstrong Siddeley in 1959 to create Bristol Siddeley, which was subsequently acquired by Rolls-Royce in 1966.[44]
- ↑ At that time, UK terminology classified "megaton range" as yields of 500 kt or higher.[68] The predicted yield for Green Grass was approximately 500 kt.[69]
- ↑ No. 35 and 617 Squadrons, also part of the Scampton Wing, maintained secondary maritime reconnaissance responsibilities.[93]
- ↑ There is some debate regarding the origin of these pods; some sources suggest they were converted from de Havilland Sea Vixen drop tanks,[96] while others indicate they were based on Hawker Hunter tanks.[97]
- ↑ Dependent on oxygen system installed; no structural altitude limitation.
- ↑ Assuming specific gravity of .8 (8 lb/gal).
- ↑ Two cylindrical tanks of 995 imp gal (4,520 L; 1,195 US gal) each.
- ↑ Three cylindrical tanks of Template:Cvt 995 each.
Citations
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 32.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, p. 33.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 43.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 13
- ↑ Blackman 2007, pp. 38, 40.
- ↑ Hamilton-Paterson 2010, pp. 18–19.
- ↑ Wansbrough-White 1995, p.44.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, p.8.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, p.41.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Darling 2007, p.15.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, pp. 82/83
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 62.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, p. 48.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Blackman 2007, pp. 128–129.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 48.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "Avro Type List." Archived 8 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine Avro Heritage. Retrieved: 4 August 2013.
- ↑ Gibson 2011, pp. 117–118.
- ↑ Force V: The history of Britain's airborne deterrent, by Andrew Brookes. Jane's Publishing Co Ltd; First Edition 1 Jan. 1982, ISBN 0710602383, p.131.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Buttler 2007, p. 72.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedPB&E112 - ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedbrookes57 - ↑ Aircrew Manual pt. 1, ch. 7, paras. 1, 7, 10, 24, 48.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt.1, ch. 16, para. 1
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt.1, ch. 20, para. 3b
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt.1, ch. 16, para. 3b
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt. 1, ch. 10.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual pt.1, ch. 12, para. 1.
- ↑ "National Archive file AVIA 2347." Archived 2 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine National Archives. Retrieved: 11 September 2012.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual pt. 1, ch. 15, p. 5.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt. 1, ch. 10, para. 1(a).
- ↑ Aircrew Manual pt. 1, ch. 7, para. 7.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual pt. 1, ch. 7, para 70.
- ↑ Darling 1999, p. 19.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual pt. 1, ch. 7, para. 77.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes, ch. 7.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, pp. 100, 101.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Aircrew Manual, ch. 4.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual, ch. 7.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual, ch. 7.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 Laming 2002, p. 60.
- ↑ Aircrew Manual pt. 1, ch. 10, paras. 1–3, 48.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 18.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 11.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 13.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 45, 46.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 108.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 47.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 63.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, pp. 44–46.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 50.
- ↑ "16,000 lb Thrust." Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight, 15 February 1957, p. 200.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, pp. 50–64.
- ↑ "We all love the howl" Archived 11 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine Vulcan To The Sky Trust, 13 December 2013.
- ↑ "Will 'howl' of the Vulcan bomber be heard over Bournemouth again?" The Daily Echo, 30 December 2009.
- ↑ "Vulcan XH558 Awesome Howl Sounds" Archived 17 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine YouTube, 28 October 2012.
- ↑ Lambert, C. M. "Bomex By Vulcan." Archived 2 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, January 1958, p. 66.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedblackman142 - ↑ "Vulcans In Service: A visit to the V-force Delta of No.1 Group in Lincolnshire." Flight International, 27 September 1957, pp. 502–503.
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 49.
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Darling 2007, p. 55.
- ↑ Darling 2007, pp. 65, 108.
- ↑ Mola, Roger A. "The Day Nobody Flew." Archived 24 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine airspacemag.com, November 2006. Retrieved: 5 November 2009.
- ↑ Sgarlato, Nico. "Avro Vulcan." Aerei magazine, Delta Editions, Parma, November 1996, p. 56.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 6.
- ↑ Leitch Air Enthusiast September/October 2003, pp. 55, 58.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Darling 2007, p. 32.
- ↑ Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, p. 48.
- ↑ Leitch Air Enthusiast September/October 2003, p. 57.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 19.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 76.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 14.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 43.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 14–15.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 88.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 116.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 89.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 Darling 2007, p. 65.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedmellow200401 - ↑ "Royal Air Force loses nuclear arsenal." AP Online, March 31, 1998.
- ↑ Segell 1997, p. 124.
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 Bull 2004, p. 84.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 63.
- ↑ 84.0 84.1 "The Falkland Islands: A history of the 1982 conflict." Royal Air Force, 29 April 2010.
- ↑ Darling 2007, pp. 116–117.
- ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 86.3 Braybook 1982, p. 17.
- ↑ Hearn 2007, p. 268.
- ↑ White 2006
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 118.
- ↑ Kev Darling, RAR Illustrated: Avro Vulcan Part 1, Big Bird Publications 2007 (p.119)
- ↑ Chris Chant, Air War in the Falklands 1982, Osprey Publishing Limited 2001 (p.92)
- ↑ Jones V-Bombers 2007, pp. 158–159.
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, p. 67.
- ↑ Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, pp. 67, 78.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p. 87.
- ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedBrookes83 - ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 97.3 Jones V-Bombers 2007, p. 159.
- ↑ Brookes 2011, p. 70.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p. 90.
- ↑ Polmar and Bell 2004, p. 261.
- ↑ "Defence." Archived 13 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 14 April 1979, p. 1136.
- ↑ Frawley 2002, p. 44.
- ↑ Halpenny 2006, p. 244.
- ↑ 104.0 104.1 Halpenny 2006, p. 243.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 124.
- ↑ Jackson 1990, pp. 409–411.
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 Jackson 1990, p. 411.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, p. 44.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, p. 50.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 15.
- ↑ Austin 2009, pp. 111–113.
- ↑ Austin 2009, p. 113.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, pp. 60, 64.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes AP 4505-C PN
- ↑ Aircrew Manual AP 101B-1902-15
- ↑ 116.0 116.1 116.2 Blackman 2007, p. 213.
Bibliography
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Further reading
- Arnold, Lorna. Britain and the H-Bomb. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK, 2001. ISBN 0-333-94742-8.
- Chesnau, Roger and Ray Rimell. Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 (Aeroguide 29). Ad Hoc Publications, Ringshall, Suffolk, UK, 2003. ISBN 0-946958-39-4.
- Dodds, Colin. "Flying the Tin Triangle." Aeroplane, Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue 408, April 2007.
- Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Crowood Press, Wiltshire, UK, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.
- McLelland, Tim. The Avro Vulcan: A Complete History. Crécy Publishing Limited, Manchester, UK, 2007. ISBN 978-0-85979-127-4.
External links
- Tribute Site for the Avro Vulcan Bomber Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Vulcan to the Sky project
- Vulcans in Camera collection
- History of the Vulcan
- Vulcan Restoration Trust Archived 18 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Video showing Roland Falk performing a Vulcan roll at Farnborough in 1955 Archived 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Biography of Vulcan Test Pilot Roly Falk
- Construction of the Vulcan Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine – a 1957 article from Flight
- The Vulcan Story Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine – a 1958 Flight magazine feature
- The Virtues of the Avro Vulcan Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine – a 1954 advertisement for the Vulcan in Flight magazine
- Autobiography of Bill Wood, a Vulcan test pilot Archived 28 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine
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