World Trade Center (1973–2001)

World Trade Center
Company type	Complex of commercial buildings
Industry	Real estate, office space
Predecessor	Radio Row (warehouse district)
Founded	1966; 60 years ago
Founder	David Rockefeller
Defunct	September 11, 2001
Fate	Destroyed during the September 11 attacks
Successor	New World Trade Center complex
Headquarters	New York City, United States
Area served	Lower Manhattan, New York City
Key people	Minoru Yamasaki (architect), Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (owner and manager), Silverstein Properties (leaseholder from July 2001)
Products	Office space, commercial buildings
Owner	Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (until 1998), Silverstein Properties (leaseholder from 2001)
Number of employees	Approximately 130,000 occupants (office capacity) (Before 2001)

The original World Trade Center (WTC) was a group of seven structures located in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Primarily built between 1966 and 1975 and officially opened on April 4, 1973, the complex was destroyed during the September 11 attacks in 2001. The iconic centerpiece comprised the Twin Towers—each rising 110 stories—making them the tallest buildings worldwide upon completion: the North Tower (1 WTC) measured , while the South Tower (2 WTC) reached . They held the record as the tallest twin skyscrapers until 1996, when Kuala Lumpur’s Petronas Towers surpassed them. Additional buildings within the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. The entire complex provided approximately of office space, designed to support around 130,000 occupants.

The development of the core complex required an investment near $400 million (equivalent to about ${{Format price| billion in )). The initiative was spearheaded by David Rockefeller to promote urban revitalization in Lower Manhattan, with legislation enacted by his brother Nelson Rockefeller, then serving as New York’s governor. Architect Minoru Yamasaki was responsible for the design, while management fell under the purview of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. In 1998, control shifted when the Port Authority leased the property to private operators, granting the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001.

Throughout its history, the World Trade Center stood as a symbol of American economic strength and global interconnectedness. Although it initially faced criticism from both architecture experts and local residents, the Twin Towers evolved into emblematic landmarks featured in over 470 films and notable events like Philippe Petit’s daring 1974 tightrope walk between them. Following September 11, references in media were modified or removed entirely, accompanied by numerous commemorative films.

The site endured several significant security challenges, including a fire in February 1975, a bombing in February 1993, and a bank robbery in January 1998 before its destruction on September 11, 2001. On that tragic day, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked two Boeing 767 aircraft and crashed them into the Twin Towers within seventeen minutes; at impact time, an estimated 16,400 to 18,000 individuals were inside. Fires ignited by jet fuel compromised structural supports, resulting in both towers’ collapse. The attacks claimed 2,606 lives within and around the buildings plus all passengers aboard both planes (excluding hijackers). Additionally, debris and fires led to partial or complete collapse of all other WTC buildings including 7 WTC and inflicted damage on ten adjacent structures.

Recovery and cleanup operations at Ground Zero spanned eight months; demolition of remaining debris concluded with removal of the final steel beam on May 30, 2002. A new World Trade Center complex is currently under construction featuring six skyscrapers, a memorial and museum dedicated to victims, a modern rapid transit hub, and an elevated park. The memorial incorporates two reflecting pools situated where the original Twin Towers once stood. The flagship building of this redevelopment, One World Trade Center, reaches , making it the tallest structure in the Western Hemisphere; it was completed in May 2013 and officially opened in November 2014.

Site

The western segment of what would become the World Trade Center site was originally submerged beneath the Hudson River, with the shoreline situated near Greenwich Street, close to the former location of Dey Street. In November 1613, the Dutch explorer Adriaen Block experienced the destruction of his vessel, the Tyger, by fire at this spot, marking the earliest European settlement on Manhattan. After shoreline expansion began in 1797, the remains of the ship were covered by landfill and later uncovered in 1916. Additionally, during excavations in 2010, a second vessel from the eighteenth century—likely a Hudson River sloop—was discovered approximately below ground close to where the Twin Towers would eventually stand.

Subsequently, this area evolved into New York City's Radio Row, a bustling warehouse district from 1921 until 1966, located within present-day Tribeca and the Financial District. Originating with Harry Schneck's City Radio on Cortlandt Street, it expanded into multiple blocks filled with electronics retailers specializing in used radios, surplus military electronics, and components. This concentration played a significant role in pioneering the electronic component distribution industry.

Establishment of the World Trade Center

The idea for a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943 when the New York State Legislature empowered Governor Thomas E. Dewey to devise plans; however, these efforts were suspended by 1949. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, economic activity had increasingly centered in Midtown Manhattan, motivating David Rockefeller to promote a World Trade Center project in Lower Manhattan aimed at fostering urban revitalization.

By 1961, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey evaluated potential locations for what would become the world's inaugural World Trade Center: either on the east side near South Street Seaport or on the west side adjacent to the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) station at Hudson Terminal. Early proposals favored the East River location, but negotiations faltered with New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner due to disagreements over financing a $335 million development.

Following a steep decline in H&M Railroad ridership—from 113 million passengers in 1927 down to 26 million by 1958—the Port Authority suggested acquiring H&M and relocating the project to its Hudson Terminal site on Lower Manhattan’s west side. This move enhanced accessibility for New Jersey commuters through what was later renamed PATH (Port Authority Trans-Hudson), securing New Jersey's backing.

To make way for construction, businesses within Radio Row were displaced and compensated uniformly with $3,000 each, irrespective of their duration of occupancy or financial success. Property acquisition commenced by March 1965; demolition began in March 1966 and concluded within that same year.

Final approval also depended on consent from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the City Council. Disagreements regarding tax obligations delayed advancement until August 1966, when an agreement was reached for annual payments in lieu of taxes (PILOT) on privately leased sections of the complex. These payments were structured to increase alongside real estate tax rates over time. In May 1967, city planners authorized modifications to the street grid that allowed additional land acquisition necessary for development.

Design

On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority appointed Minoru Yamasaki as the principal architect, with Emery Roth & Sons acting as associate architects. Yamasaki's original concept proposed twin towers rising 80 stories, which was later increased to 110 stories to satisfy the Port Authority's demand for extensive office space. A model was unveiled on January 18, 1964, illustrating the two towers encircled by several six-story buildings arranged around a central plaza (eventually named Austin J. Tobin Plaza), featuring office areas, dining establishments, a hotel, exhibition halls, retail outlets, and a world trade information center.

Although the towers’ height faced public opposition, the finalized design released in May 1966 maintained the twin towers alongside four additional low-rise buildings framing the plaza.

Design features

Yamasaki’s design incorporated towers with a roughly square base measuring about 207 feet per side and slim office windows intended to evoke a secure environment. The exterior was clad in aluminum alloy. His aesthetic combined gothic modernism with influences from Le Corbusier and Islamic architectural motifs, inspired partly by his work on Saudi Arabia’s Dhahran International Airport.

To optimize elevator functionality in such tall structures, a system featuring two "sky lobbies" on the 44th and 78th floors enabled passengers to switch from express to local elevators. This arrangement increased usable floor area from 62% to 75%. The entire complex contained 95 express and local elevators.

Structural engineering was led by Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson, who introduced the innovative framed-tube structural approach. The Port Authority’s Engineering Department oversaw foundation work; Joseph R. Loring & Associates managed electrical systems; and Jaros, Baum & Bolles handled mechanical engineering. Tishman Realty & Construction Company acted as general contractor. Project supervision was provided by Guy F. Tozzoli and Rino M. Monti of the Port Authority. Although exempt from New York City building codes due to its interstate agency status, the team adhered to draft versions of the city’s 1968 codes.

The framed-tube concept, developed by structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan, enabled open interior layouts by concentrating structural support within 236 closely spaced high-strength steel perimeter columns that functioned as rigid walls resisting lateral forces such as wind. Prefabricated modular units consisting of three columns spanning three stories were welded off-site and bolted together during assembly for efficient construction. Below the seventh floor, perimeter columns were fewer and spaced wider to accommodate doorways.

The building core contained elevator shafts, stairwells, restrooms, and utilities within a rectangular footprint approximately 87 by 135 feet, supported by 47 steel columns extending from bedrock to rooftop. Prefabricated floor trusses spanned between core and perimeter columns supporting lightweight concrete floors that provided lateral stability and distributed wind loads effectively. Floors were connected to perimeter spandrels using viscoelastic dampers designed to minimize sway experienced by occupants.

Hat trusses situated above the 107th floor supported communication antennas; only One World Trade Center (North Tower) received a spire antenna installed in May 1979. This truss system facilitated load redistribution between core and perimeter columns.

The steel framework was coated with sprayed-on fireproofing material but remained comparatively lightweight relative to traditional masonry-clad skyscrapers like the Empire State Building. Wind tunnel testing determined design pressures and acceptable occupant sway levels; viscoelastic tuned mass dampers were incorporated to ensure sway remained within comfortable limits.

Construction

The Port Authority initiated property acquisition for the World Trade Center site in March 1965. Demolition commenced in 1966, clearing thirteen square blocks in the area known as Radio Row. The groundbreaking ceremony took place later that same year.

Situated on reclaimed land with bedrock located approximately below, the project necessitated building a slurry wall—commonly referred to as the "bathtub"—along West Street to prevent Hudson River water intrusion. Chief engineer John M. Kyle Jr. utilized a slurry technique combining bentonite and water to stabilize the excavation trench. This slurry wall construction spanned fourteen months and was a prerequisite before excavation inside the site could begin. The excavated material was repurposed to extend Manhattan’s shoreline, contributing to the creation of Battery Park City.

In January 1967, contracts worth $74 million were awarded by the Port Authority to steel suppliers, and excavation for the bathtub started later that year. Work on the North Tower began in August 1968, with the South Tower following in January 1969. The original Hudson Tubes PATH trains continued operations until 1971, when a new station was inaugurated. The North Tower reached its full height on , 1970, while the South Tower topped out on , 1971.

The use of prefabricated elements expedited the building process, enabling tenants to occupy space in the North Tower by December 15, 1970, even prior to final completion; tenants moved into the South Tower starting in January 1972. By late 1971, the complex accommodated 111 tenants employing approximately 1,800 people.

Upon completion, total expenses for the Twin Towers amounted to $900 million. The official ribbon-cutting took place on , 1973. Alongside the Twin Towers, four additional low-rise buildings were constructed during the early 1970s. In the 1980s, a 47-story structure known as 7 World Trade Center was added north of the main complex. Collectively, the main World Trade Center occupied a superblock spanning .

Complex

The World Trade Center complex hosted more than 430 companies engaged in various commercial enterprises. It provided of office space designed to support a workforce of up to 130,000 individuals. On an average weekday, roughly 50,000 employees worked within the complex, while an additional 140,000 visitors passed through its premises. Its vast size warranted its own postal code: 10048. Notable features included an observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant located in the North Tower. The Twin Towers emerged as iconic New York City landmarks, standing alongside other famous sites such as the Empire State Building and Rockefeller Center.

North and South Towers

Known collectively as the Twin Towers, One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center were designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki employing framed tube structural systems that enabled open floor layouts free from interior columns. Construction began in 1966; the North Tower was finished in 1972 and held the title of tallest building globally for two years with a height of . A rooftop antenna installed in 1979 and upgraded in 1999 for digital broadcasting extended its total height to . The South Tower was completed in 1973 and measured , featuring both rooftop and enclosed observation decks.

Each tower occupied approximately of the overall site area. Yamasaki’s design sought to harmonize monumental scale with human-centered elements; although initially met with criticism by architectural commentators such as Ada Louise Huxtable, both towers contained 110 floors—exceeding any other building until Sears Tower was completed in 1973. They remained the tallest twin towers worldwide until overtaken by Malaysia’s Petronas Towers in 1996 and retained their record for total floors until surpassed by Dubai’s Burj Khalifa in 2010. Each tower had an estimated mass near 500,000 tons.

Floor layout

Levels	Function		Floor diagrams with color codes indicating usage
Levels	North Tower	South Tower	North Tower	South Tower
Roof	Communication and broadcasting	Open-air observation deck	<timeline> ImageSize = width:100 height:417 PlotArea = left:60 right:0 top:3 bottom:4 DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:-6 till:112 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:-6 gridcolor:black ScaleMinor = unit:year increment=1 start:-6 gridcolor=tan2 Colors = id:bc value:rgb(1,1,0) id:me value:rgb(0.5,0.5,0.5) id:ww value:rgb(1,0,0) id:te value:rgb(0,1,0) id:sl value:rgb(0,0.5,1) id:lb value:rgb(0,1,1) BarData = bar:level PlotData = width:38 bar:level from:110 till:112 color:bc bar:level from:108 till:110 color:me bar:level from:106 till:108 color:ww bar:level from:79 till:106 color:te bar:level from:78 till:79 color:sl bar:level from:77 till:78 color:te bar:level from:75 till:77 color:me bar:level from:45 till:75 color:te bar:level from:44 till:45 color:sl bar:level from:43 till:44 color:te bar:level from:41 till:43 color=me bar=level from=9 till=41 color=te bar=level from=7 till=9 color=me bar=level from=0 till=7 color=lb bar=level from=-6 till=0 color=me </timeline>	<timeline> ImageSize = width=100 height=415 PlotArea = left=60 right=0 top=3 bottom=4 DateFormat = yyyy Period = from=-6 till=112 TimeAxis = orientation=vertical ScaleMajor = unit=year increment=5 start=-6 gridcolor=black ScaleMinor = unit=year increment=1 start=-6 gridcolor=tan2 Colors = id=me value=rgb(0.5,0.5,0.5) id=ob value=rgb(1,0,1) id=te value=rgb(0,1,0) id=sl value=rgb(0,0.5,1) id=lb value=rgb(0,1,1) BarData = bar=level PlotData = width=38 bar=level from=110 till=112 color=ob bar=level from=108 till=110 color=me bar=level from=107 till=108 color=ob bar=level from=79 till=107 color=te bar=level from=78 till=79 color=sl bar=level from=77 till=78 color=te bar=level from=75 till=77 color=me bar=level from=45 till=75 color=te bar=level from=44 till=45 color=sl bar- level from-43 till-44 color-te bar-level from-41 till-43 color-me bar-level from-9 till-41 color-te bar-level from-7 till-9 color-me bar-level from-0 till-7 color-lb bar-level from--6 till-0 color-me </timeline>
108–109	Floors for mechanical equipment
107	Windows on the World dining	Top of the World viewing platform
106	Leased tenant space
79–105	Office space leased to tenants
78	Sky lobby
77	Leased tenant space
75–76	Mechanical floors
45–74	Tenant office areas
44	Sky lobby
43	Tenant office space
41–42	Mechanical floors
9–40	Leased tenant space
7–8	Mechanical floors
Plaza, 2–6	Mezzanine level, lobby areas, and tenant spaces
Concourse	Retail concourse and lobby
B1–B3	Parking levels
B4	Combination of parking and mechanical areas
B5–B6	Mechanical floors

Austin J. Tobin Plaza

The original World Trade Center was designed with a central plaza that served as the focal point for all surrounding structures, including the Twin Towers. This open space was intended by planners to function as a "contemplative area" or Zen garden. In 1982, the plaza was renamed in honor of Austin J. Tobin, the Port Authority chairman responsible for initiating the original WTC project. During summer months, a temporary stage was set up near the North Tower to host "CenterStage at the World Trade Center" concerts and various performances.

At the heart of the plaza stood The Sphere, a monumental modern bronze sculpture created by German artist Fritz Koenig, encircled by a fountain. Additional art installations featured included Ideogram, Cloud Fortress, and the fountain commemorating the 1993 World Trade Center Bombing Memorial. Background Muzak music was continuously played through speakers spread throughout the plaza.

The plaza was notorious for intense wind gusts generated by the Venturi effect between the towers, occasionally necessitating pedestrian assistance via ropes to navigate safely. In 1997, restaurateur Tony May launched "Gemelli" next to 4 World Trade Center, followed by "Pasta Break" in 1998.

After undergoing $12 million in improvements, the outdoor plaza reopened on June 9, 1999. Renovations included replacing marble pavers with over 40,000 granite stones in gray and pink hues, alongside new benches, planters, food kiosks, and designated outdoor dining spaces.

Top of the World observation deck

The South Tower housed a public observation deck known as Top of the World on its 107th floor, enclosed in glass, complemented by an open-air deck located at 110 stories high. The observation area began welcoming visitors in December 1975 and operated seasonally—opening from 9:30 a.m. to 11:30 p.m. during June through August and from 9:30 a.m. to 9:30 p.m. during September through May. Guests purchased admission tickets on the second floor and underwent security screenings introduced following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Access to the indoor observatory at 1,310 feet was provided by a dedicated express elevator traveling through the building’s core. The exterior columns were slimmed down to allow window widths of 28 inches.

In 1995, Ogden Entertainment took over management of the observatory under lease from the Port Authority and reopened it after renovations on April 30, 1997. The upgrade introduced business-oriented features such as 24 video monitors presenting information about 44 landmarks in six languages, a theater showing "Manhattan Magic," a simulated helicopter tour film, a detailed scale model of Manhattan featuring 750 buildings, a Kodak photo booth, and two retail shops. The 107th floor also contained a subway-themed food court hosting eateries like Sbarro and Nathan's Famous, with dining areas designed to evoke Central Park.

Weather permitting, visitors could ascend two escalators from the indoor deck to reach an outdoor platform situated at 1,377 feet. On clear days, visibility extended up to 50 miles. To prevent suicides, an anti-suicide fence was installed on the roof; however, the viewing platform was set back and elevated above this barrier to preserve unobstructed panoramic views—unlike those found at the Empire State Building observation decks.

Windows on the World Restaurant

Situated on the 106th and 107th floors of the North Tower, Windows on the World debuted in April 1976 under the vision of restaurateur Joe Baum, with investments surpassing $17 million. Alongside the principal dining venue, two additional establishments operated atop the North Tower: Hors d'Oeuvrerie, which served a Danish smorgasbord during daytime hours and transformed into a sushi bar by evening, and Cellar in the Sky, a dedicated wine lounge. The restaurant also hosted a wine education program led by Kevin Zraly, who authored an instructional book based on the curriculum.

Operations ceased following the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center due to damage that impacted service continuity. On May 12, 1994, Joseph Baum & Michael Whiteman Company won the contract to manage the restaurants after previous operator Inhilco surrendered its lease. Windows on the World resumed service on June 26, 1996, introducing new concepts such as the Greatest Bar on Earth and reopening Cellar in the Sky after Labor Day, replacing former satellite venues. In 1999, Cellar in the Sky transitioned into Wild Blue, an American steakhouse. By 2000, its last complete year in business, Windows on the World generated $37 million in revenue, making it the top-earning restaurant nationwide. Additionally, it operated the Skydive Restaurant—a 180-seat cafeteria located on the 44th floor of 1 WTC—primarily serving office employees.

In its final years, critical reception was varied. In 1996, New York Times food critic Ruth Reichl awarded it two stars out of four, describing it as a popular spot for tourists though not necessarily a premier dining choice. William Grimes characterized it as a venue where "New York was the main course." Reflecting in 2014, Ryan Sutton of Eater.com recognized Windows on the World for pioneering captive audience dining by establishing itself as a destination independent of its location.

Other buildings

The block was also home to five smaller structures. At its southwest corner stood a 22-story hotel that opened in 1981 as the Vista Hotel and was rebranded as the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC) in 1995. Surrounding the plaza were three low-rise steel-framed office buildings: 4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC. 6 World Trade Center accommodated the United States Customs Service. Positioned above the PATH station at the northeast corner was 5 World Trade Center, while 4 World Trade Center at the southeast corner housed the U.S. Commodities Exchange. A 47-story office tower known as 7 World Trade Center was completed north of this superblock in 1987. Beneath these buildings lay an underground shopping mall, which provided connections to mass transit systems including the New York City Subway and Port Authority's PATH trains.

One of the largest gold vaults globally was situated beneath the complex, owned by commercial banking institutions. The 1993 bombing occurred close to this vault. Approximately seven weeks after those attacks, $230 million worth of precious metals—including roughly 3,800 gold bars weighing 100 troy ounces each at 24-carat purity and about 30,000 silver bars weighing 1,000 ounces each—were retrieved from basement vaults within 4 WTC.

Fire on February 13, 1975

A significant fire erupted on February 13, 1975, originating on the 11th floor of the North Tower. The blaze extended to the 9th and 14th floors by traveling through telephone cable insulation located within a utility shaft. Firefighters managed to extinguish the flames within a few hours, with the most severe damage confined to the 11th floor, where office supplies served as fuel. Thanks to fireproofing measures, the steel framework remained intact, avoiding structural compromise. However, water used during firefighting efforts caused damage to several lower levels. At that time, no fire sprinkler systems were installed in the World Trade Center; plans for a $45 million sprinkler system were announced six years later in 1981. The fire was intentionally ignited by Oswald Adorno, a disgruntled custodian who faced criminal charges for his actions.

Bombing on February 26, 1993

The World Trade Center experienced its inaugural terrorist attack on February 26, 1993, when a Ryder truck packed with approximately 1,500 pounds of explosives detonated inside the underground garage beneath the North Tower. The explosion created a crater roughly 100 feet wide that penetrated five sublevels, inflicting extensive damage to basement levels B1 and B2 and causing structural harm to B3. The attack resulted in six fatalities and injured over one thousand individuals. Several conspirators were convicted: Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman and four associates for their involvement, while Ramzi Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were found guilty of executing the bombing plot. Their objective was to destabilize the North Tower with the intention of causing both towers to collapse.

Restoration efforts after the bombing concentrated on reinforcing compromised floors and stabilizing the slurry wall that had lost lateral support due to excavation. The refrigeration plant located on sublevel B5 sustained heavy damage. In response, the Port Authority implemented photoluminescent emergency path markings within stairwells and upgraded the fire alarm system after existing wiring was destroyed. A reflecting pool memorial dedicated to bombing victims was later demolished during the September 11 attacks; their names are now honored within the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.

Robbery on January 14, 1998

In January of 1998, Ralph Guarino, affiliated with the DeCavalcante crime family, accessed maintenance areas within the World Trade Center. He orchestrated a heist involving three accomplices that resulted in theft exceeding $2 million from a Brinks cash delivery on the North Tower's 11th floor.

Additional notable occurrences

On August 7, 1974, Philippe Petit executed an unauthorized high-wire walk between the North and South Towers at an elevation of 1,312 feet above street level. Employing a 440-pound cable and a specially designed 30-foot balancing pole, he completed eight crossings over a span of 45 minutes. Although Petit was initially charged with trespassing and disorderly conduct, authorities released him after he agreed to perform for children in Central Park.

On February 20, 1981, Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 342, operating a Boeing 707-387B aircraft, narrowly avoided colliding with the transmitting antenna atop the North Tower while approaching JFK Airport. Air traffic controllers intervened promptly within ninety seconds to prevent an accident.

The South Tower’s 107th floor hosted the PCA World Chess Championship in 1995.

A fatal accident occurred on February 8, 2000, when a construction worker was crushed by an industrial cooling unit at the complex; another worker sustained injuries.

On August 11, 2000, an elevator malfunction caused it to overshoot its stop at the 78th floor and collide with the shaft’s upper section. This incident injured twelve individuals—eight required hospitalization while four received treatment at the scene.

Proposed lease

The original World Trade Center complex faced slow tenant acquisition and elevated vacancy levels, achieving 95% occupancy only by the middle of 2001.

In the late 1990s, the Port Authority initiated a plan to privatize the World Trade Center,<ref>seeking private sector involvement by 2001. Among the contenders were Vornado Realty Trust, a joint proposal from Brookfield Properties and Boston Properties, and a partnership bid by Silverstein Properties and the Westfield Group.<ref>This privatization aimed to incorporate the complex into the city’s tax base and generate funding for other Port Authority initiatives.

On , 2001, Vornado Realty Trust secured the 99-year lease with a $3.25 billion offer, surpassing Silverstein by $600 million. Nevertheless, Vornado requested last-minute modifications, such as reducing the lease term to 39 years, which the Port Authority declined.<ref>Following this, Vornado withdrew, leading to acceptance of Silverstein’s $3.22 billion proposal on , 2001,<ref>with the lease finalized on , 2001.<ref>

Destruction

On September 11, 2001, two commercial airplanes were hijacked by Islamist terrorists and deliberately crashed into the Twin Towers. Commanded by Mohamed Atta, American Airlines Flight 11 struck the North Tower between floors 93 and 99 at 8:46:40 a.m. Approximately seventeen minutes later, at about 9:03 a.m., United Airlines Flight 175, piloted by Marwan al-Shehhi, impacted the South Tower between floors 77 and 85.

The attacks were orchestrated by al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, as retaliation against U.S. foreign policies, notably its support for Israel and military presence in Saudi Arabia. The crash of Flight 11 trapped roughly 1,344 individuals above the impact zone in the North Tower. Flight 175 hit off-center in the South Tower, leaving one stairwell intact; however, fewer than 700 people managed to evacuate before its collapse.

The South Tower collapsed at 9:59 a.m., after burning for nearly 56 minutes. The North Tower followed at 10:28 a.m., succumbing after approximately 102 minutes of intense fire compromised its steel framework. Later that day, at 5:20 p.m., uncontrolled fires caused structural failure resulting in the collapse of 7 World Trade Center.

The Marriott World Trade Center hotel was destroyed amid the towers’ fall. The three remaining plaza buildings sustained severe damage and were subsequently demolished. Site cleanup and recovery operations extended over eight months. The nearby St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church was also destroyed but was reconstructed and reopened in December 2022. The adjacent Deutsche Bank Building was condemned due to hazardous conditions and dismantled by early 2011. Fiterman Hall of Borough of Manhattan Community College suffered extensive damage and was demolished before being rebuilt.

Early media coverage overestimated fatalities; according to NIST, about 17,400 occupants were present in both towers at impact time. Ultimately, death certificates totaling 2,753 were issued (excluding hijackers). Among those lost were 2,192 civilians, with significant casualties from investment bank Cantor Fitzgerald (658 employees), Marsh & McLennan Companies (295), and Aon Corporation (175). Additionally, emergency responders suffered heavy losses: 414 personnel died including 343 firefighters (encompassing paramedics and chaplains), 71 law enforcement officers (including Port Authority Police and NYPD members), and eight EMS workers from private agencies.

A decade after the attacks, only 1,629 victims’ remains had been identified. Of those inside during the towers’ collapse, just twenty individuals were rescued alive. The location became widely known as "Ground Zero."

New World Trade Center

In the aftermath of the 2001 attacks, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC) was created to manage the rebuilding efforts of the World Trade Center site. LMDC conducted design competitions for the overall site plan and memorial, ultimately selecting Daniel Libeskind's Memory Foundations as the guiding master plan, although considerable alterations to the original design were subsequently implemented.

The initial new structure, 7 WTC, officially opened on . The memorial portion of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum was inaugurated on September 11, 2011, with the museum itself opening later on May 21, 2014. Additional buildings were completed in this order: 4 WTC on November 13, 2013; 1 WTC on November 3, 2014; and 3 WTC on June 11, 2018.

In November 2013, Silverstein Properties Inc. announced that construction of the new 2 WTC would be postponed until there was adequate leasing demand to justify the investment. Similarly, work on 5 WTC was halted due to a lack of tenants and disagreements between the Port Authority and LMDC. By mid-2015, Silverstein revealed a revamped design for 2 WTC by Bjarke Ingels, aiming for completion by 2020 with News Corp as its primary tenant. However, by 2019, in the absence of a confirmed anchor tenant, Silverstein declared intentions to move forward with construction regardless of leasing status.

Reception

The redevelopment plans for the World Trade Center encountered opposition because the project led to the displacement of numerous commercial occupants, small businesses, property owners, and nearly one hundred residents who opposed forced relocation. Some affected parties legally challenged the Port Authority's use of eminent domain, but the Supreme Court declined to review their appeal.

Concerns were voiced by private developers and the Real Estate Board of New York—led by Empire State Building proprietor Lawrence A. Wien—over subsidized office space potentially competing with vacancies in the private market; notably, the World Trade Center did not reach full occupancy until after 1979 and only then due to financial incentives. Certain critics questioned whether the Port Authority had prioritized social objectives that were misguided.

The architectural design faced criticism from organizations such as the American Institute of Architects and others. Renowned urban planner Lewis Mumford described the towers as "glass-and-metal filing cabinets" lacking distinctive character. The Twin Towers were disparagingly compared to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and Chrysler Building came in." Cultural commentator Paul Fussell labeled them as "charmless" and "brutal," representing raw authority rather than architectural excellence. James Howard Kunstler observed that such skyscrapers symbolized human ego but placed strain on infrastructure and distorted population distribution.

Mumford further condemned the project as an example of "purposeless giantism" detrimental to urban vitality. Critics also disliked how narrow office windows framed by columns restricted outward views. Activist Jane Jacobs championed maintaining open waterfronts for public access. Despite these critiques, in 2007, the American Institute of Architects ranked the World Trade Center complex nineteenth among America's favorite architectural works.

Impact on the neighboring community

The original World Trade Center established a superblock that disrupted the existing street network, effectively separating the complex from adjacent neighborhoods. The Port Authority eliminated multiple streets within a 12-block perimeter defined by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets to accommodate the towers. Constructed in the late 1980s on the northern edge of this superblock above Greenwich Street, 7 World Trade Center served as a physical divide between Tribeca and the Financial District. Additionally, the underground shopping mall redirected pedestrian traffic away from the nearby streets.

The development was often criticized for its imposing scale and lack of public consultation during its planning phase. In contrast, the reconstruction efforts incorporated extensive community feedback. Public opinion strongly supported reinstating the original street grid across the site. One of the considered designs featured an enclosed retail corridor along Cortlandt Street, a thoroughfare originally removed to build the World Trade Center. Ultimately, the Port Authority resolved to restore Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, all of which had been erased during the initial construction.

Cultural significance and representation

Prior to its destruction, the World Trade Center stood as an emblematic symbol of New York City, with its Twin Towers prominently defining its skyline. The towers frequently appeared in movies and television as establishing visuals representing New York. By 1999, they ranked among the city’s top ten tourist destinations. Films such as Sidney Lumet’s The Wiz (1978) utilized the complex as a central setting, while productions like King Kong (1976) featured extensive sequences involving the towers. Other films including Independence Day (1996) and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992) included brief shots of the complex.

The World Trade Center also hosted several notable events. In 1974, French tightrope walker Philippe Petit performed a daring high-wire walk between the Twin Towers, an episode captured in Man on Wire (2008) and dramatized in The Walk (2015). Petit completed eight passes on a steel cable stretched between the buildings. In 1975, Owen J. Quinn executed a base jump from the North Tower’s rooftop to raise awareness about poverty. On May 26, 1977, Brooklyn-based toymaker George Willig ascended the South Tower’s exterior to demonstrate its climbable nature. In 1983, advocate Dan Goodwin climbed the North Tower to spotlight challenges faced by high-rise firefighting and rescue operations.

By 2006, approximately 472 films had featured the World Trade Center, where it symbolized diverse themes. Film critic David Sterritt observed that in Superman, it represented American majesty, while noting that after 9/11, portraying its destruction retroactively became largely taboo. The towers also conveyed themes of romance—as in Working Girl (1988)—and corporate avarice—as depicted in Wall Street and The Bonfire of the Vanities. Beyond cinema, the complex was prominently featured in comic books, animated series, television programs, video games, and music videos.

In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks

In the wake of the September 11 tragedy, numerous films and television programs excised scenes that included the World Trade Center. For instance, the The Simpsons episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson" was withdrawn from syndication because of its portrayal of the Twin Towers. Additionally, songs mentioning the World Trade Center were pulled from radio playlists, and release schedules for movies such as Sidewalks of New York, People I Know, and Spider-Man were postponed to allow for removal of tower imagery. The 2001 film Kissing Jessica Stein underwent similar alterations prior to its broad release.

Certain productions chose to confront the attacks directly or reinterpret the significance of the World Trade Center. Family-friendly movies experienced accelerated production due to increased audience interest, while horror and action genres saw a temporary decline before returning to normal levels. By the first anniversary of the attacks, more than sixty films commemorating the events had been created. Some filmmakers faced backlash for omitting references to the towers, with critics warning that such erasure could diminish collective remembrance. Director Michael Bay was notably against removing World Trade Center imagery retroactively.

Oliver Stone’s 2006 movie World Trade Center was among the earliest to focus explicitly on how the attacks affected the towers themselves. In later years, previously removed episodes like "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson" were reinstated into syndication. The National September 11 Museum now safeguards numerous works that feature the original World Trade Center.

Logo

Throughout its existence, two distinct logos represented the World Trade Center. The initial design, used from 1973 until 1993, consisted of two open rectangles with one inverted. Following reopening after the 1993 bombing, a new emblem was introduced showing the towers encircled by a globe. This symbol appeared across the complex and was featured on commemorative mugs given to tenants bearing the message "Welcome back to the World Trade Center".

External links

World Trade Center – Silverstein Properties
World Trade Center (1997) – World Trade Center (2001) – Port Authority of New York & New Jersey
Building the Twin Towers: A Tribute – slideshow by Life magazine
New York: A Documentary film includes coverage of both construction and destruction of the World Trade Center in its final episode directed by Ric Burns.
Historic footage depicting construction of the World Trade Center in 1970

(North Tower)

(North Tower)

(North Tower)