Vulcan B.2
| Industry | Aerospace, Defence |
|---|---|
| Founded | April 1, 1910 |
| Founder | Alliott Verdon Roe |
| Fate | Merged into Hawker Siddeley Aviation in July 1963 |
| Successor | Hawker Siddeley Aviation |
| Headquarters | Manchester , United Kingdom |
| Products | Aircraft, including Avro Vulcan strategic bomber |
Overview
The Avro Vulcan—known as the Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963 onward—was a British high-altitude, jet-powered strategic bomber featuring a tailless delta wing design. It served with the Royal Air Force (RAF) between 1956 and 1984. Developed by A.V. Roe and Company (commonly known as Avro), the Vulcan was created in response to Specification B.35/46. Among the trio of V bomber aircraft produced, the Vulcan stood out as the most technologically sophisticated and, consequently, the most challenging to develop. To validate the delta wing concept, several smaller-scale test aircraft called Avro 707s were constructed.
The initial Vulcan B.1 entered RAF service in 1956, followed by the advanced Vulcan B.2 variant beginning in 1960. Enhancements in the B.2 included more powerful engines, an expanded wing area, upgraded electrical systems, and integrated electronic countermeasures. Many B.2 models were also modified to carry the Blue Steel stand-off missile. Serving as a key component of the V-force, the Vulcan formed the cornerstone of Britain's airborne nuclear deterrent throughout much of the Cold War. While its primary role involved nuclear armament, it was also capable of conventional bombing missions, notably demonstrated during Operation Black Buck in the 1982 Falklands War against Argentina.
Initially, the Vulcan lacked onboard defensive weaponry and depended on its ability to fly at high speeds and altitudes to avoid enemy interception. From around 1960 onward, electronic countermeasures were incorporated into both the B.1 (designated B.1A) and B.2 variants to enhance survivability. In response to evolving threats, tactics shifted during the mid-1960s towards low-level penetration missions. During the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were converted for maritime radar reconnaissance duties and redesignated as B.2 (MRR). Toward the end of their operational life, six aircraft were transformed into K.2 aerial refueling tankers.
Following their retirement from active RAF service, one Vulcan B.2—XH558, dubbed The Spirit of Great Britain—was restored for participation in air displays and exhibitions. Additionally, two other B.2 aircraft, XL426 and XM655, have been maintained in taxiable condition for ground demonstrations. XH558 completed its final flight in October 2015 and remains preserved for taxiing purposes. Meanwhile, XM612 is exhibited at the Norwich Aviation Museum.
Origins
The Vulcan, along with the other V-bombers, originated from Britain's early atomic weapons program and nuclear deterrence strategy. The British atomic bomb initiative commenced following Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001, issued in August 1946. This anticipated governmental approval in January 1947 to begin research and development on nuclear armaments, despite the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) restricting the sharing of atomic technology—even with former Manhattan Project allies.[1] OR.1001 specified a weapon no longer than 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m), with a diameter not exceeding 5 ft (1.5 m) and a maximum weight of 10,000 lb (4,500 kg). It was required to be deployable from altitudes ranging between 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m).[2]
In January 1947, the Ministry of Supply issued Specification B.35/46 to British aircraft manufacturers to meet Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for a "medium-range land-based bomber capable of delivering a single 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to targets up to 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) from any global base." The aircraft was expected to cruise at 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes between 35,000 and 50,000 ft (11,000 and 15,000 m). Its maximum takeoff weight was limited to 100,000 lb (45,000 kg), while alternatively it could carry a conventional bomb load of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). A related requirement, OR.230, called for a "long-range bomber" with a radius of action of 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km) and a maximum loaded weight of 200,000 lb (91,000 kg), but this was deemed overly demanding.[3] Six companies submitted proposals in response to this specification, including Avro.[4]
Following the call for tenders by April 1947, Avro began work on Specification B.35/46 under the leadership of technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies, with the project designated Avro 698. The design team quickly recognized that conventional aircraft designs could not fulfill the requirements. Neither the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) nor U.S. research provided useful data on high-speed flight.[5] Avro was aware of Alexander Lippisch's delta-wing fighter design and considered adopting this configuration for their bomber.[6] The team estimated that a conventional aircraft with a swept wing angled at 45° would result in double the target weight. Recognizing that swept wings enhanced longitudinal stability, they eliminated the tail (empennage) and its supporting fuselage, transforming the design into a swept-back flying wing featuring only a minimal forward fuselage and vertical stabilizers (fins) at each wingtip. This reduced estimated weight to just 50% over the target; shaping the wing into a delta by shortening wingspan but preserving wing area by filling in between wingtips allowed compliance with specifications.[7] While Alexander Lippisch is often credited as the delta wing innovator, Chadwick's team independently arrived at their design through logical engineering analysis.[8] The initial concept featured four large turbojet engines arranged in pairs stacked within the wings near the centerline; two bomb bays were positioned outboard of these engines.[7]
In August 1947, Chadwick died in an accident involving the (Avro Tudor II prototype), and Sir William Farren succeeded him.[9] Thinner wing profiles made it impossible to accommodate both split bomb bays and stacked engines; consequently, engines were repositioned side-by-side in pairs flanking a single bomb bay within an enlarged fuselage section. The twin wingtip fins were replaced by a single central fin.[7] Meanwhile, competitor Handley Page received a prototype order for its crescent-winged (HP.80) B.35/46 entry in November 1947.[9] Although Avro’s design was regarded as superior technically, contract approval was delayed pending confirmation of its merits.[10] Authorization to build two Avro 698 prototypes came through in January 1948.[9] As a contingency against potential failures of these advanced designs, Short Brothers obtained a contract for the prototype (SA.4) under less demanding Specification B.14/46; however, this aircraft was ultimately unnecessary. In April 1948, Vickers-Armstrongs received approval to proceed with their more conventional (Type 660), which did not fully meet B.35/46 but promised earlier availability and later entered service as the Valiant.[11]
Avro 707 and Avro 710
Lacking prior experience with delta wing designs, Avro developed two smaller experimental models derived from the 698: the one-third scale 707 to assess low-speed characteristics, and the one-half scale 710 intended for high-speed evaluation. Two units of each type were commissioned. However, development of the 710 was halted due to time constraints, and instead a high-speed variant of the 707, designated 707A, was created. The initial 707, serial VX784, took to the air in September 1949 but tragically crashed later that month, resulting in the death of Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE, chief test pilot at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment. The second low-speed 707, VX790—constructed using the nose section from the incomplete 707A (which included an ejection seat)—was redesignated as 707B and first flew in September 1950 under the control of Avro test pilot Wing Commander Roland "Roly" Falk. The high-speed 707A model, WD280, followed with its maiden flight in July 1951.
Although delays in the 707 program meant that neither the 707B nor the 707A significantly influenced the fundamental design of the 698, their testing revealed the necessity of extending the nosewheel length to achieve a ground angle of incidence of 3.5°, optimizing take-off posture. Both variants validated the delta wing concept and bolstered confidence in its aerodynamic planform. Additionally, a second 707A (WZ736) and a two-seat version designated 707C (WZ744) were produced; however, these did not contribute directly to the development of the 698.
Initial prototype VX770 and naming
Wind-tunnel experiments conducted at RAE Farnborough had a more profound effect on shaping the design of the 698 than did the Avro 707 trials. These tests necessitated redesigning the wing to feature a cranked and drooped leading edge combined with vortex generators to mitigate compressibility drag that would otherwise limit maximum velocity. This revised "phase 2" wing configuration was first examined on Avro 707A WD480 but was implemented too late to be fitted on either of the two prototype 698s or on the initial three B.1 aircraft before their first flights; these early B.1s were subsequently retrofitted with this wing design.
The prototype 698 VX770, sporting a clean delta wing and painted gloss white, undertook its inaugural flight on 30 August 1952 with Roly Falk at the controls flying solo. Powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines each delivering 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust—since its intended Bristol Olympus engines were unavailable—the aircraft featured fuselage fuel tanks but lacked wing tanks; thus, temporary fuel capacity was added within the bomb bay. VX770 appeared at the Society of British Aircraft Constructors' (SBAC) Farnborough Air Show in September 1952 where Falk performed an almost vertical bank maneuver.
Following this public debut, speculation arose regarding a suitable name for the Avro 698. Avro had advocated naming it Ottawa in recognition of its ties with Avro Canada, aligning with RAF traditions of naming bombers after inland towns within the British Commonwealth or industrial centers. The weekly publication Flight proposed Albion after dismissing options such as Avenger, Apollo, and Assegai. Ultimately, influenced by preferences for a V-class bomber designation by senior RAF officials, the Air Council officially designated the aircraft as Vulcan, inspired by the Roman god associated with fire and destruction.
In January 1953, VX770 was grounded to facilitate installation of wing fuel tanks along with Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire engines producing 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust and other system upgrades; it resumed flying in July that year.
Starting from 1957, VX770 served as a flying test platform for testing Rolls-Royce Conway bypass turbofan engines until it crashed during a flying display at RAF Syerston in September 1958.
Second prototype VX777
The second prototype, designated VX777, took to the skies for the first time on 3 September 1953. Closer in design to the eventual production models, it was extended in length to house a longer nose landing gear strut, which improved the wing's angle of attack and thereby reduced takeoff distance. This aircraft incorporated a transparent bomb-aiming blister beneath the cockpit and was powered by Bristol Olympus 100 engines delivering 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) of thrust. Following Falk's recommendation, the traditional control wheel was replaced by a fighter-style control stick. Similar to VX770, VX777 retained the original wing configuration with straight leading edges. At the 1953 Farnborough Air Show, VX777 flew in formation alongside the initial prototype VX770 and four Avro 707 aircraft. In July 1954, during testing at Farnborough, VX777 sustained significant damage due to a hard landing. After repairs, it was upgraded with Olympus 101 engines producing 11,000 lbf (49 kN) of thrust and resumed flight trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down.Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
Testing and type certification
During evaluation of VX777's performance at high speeds and altitudes at the A&AEE, pilots encountered mild buffeting and other unfavorable flight behaviors as the aircraft neared its maximum Mach number. Notably, it exhibited a dangerous inclination to enter an uncontrollable dive known as Mach tuck, which was deemed unsuitable for an unarmed bomber. The installation of the phase 2 wing eliminated these buffeting issues, while an automatic Mach trimmer counteracted the high-speed dive tendency by applying up-elevator input as velocity increased sharply. This up-elevator force exceeded that needed to prevent the dive, resulting in a control column that had to be pushed forward rather than pulled back to maintain level flight as speed rose. This artificial pitch-up effect made handling characteristics more consistent with other aircraft at higher speeds.[12]
The initial production B.1[N 1] model XA889 completed its maiden flight in February 1955 using the original wing design[14] and entered testing by June of that year. In September 1955, Falk piloted the second production B.1 XA890—stationed at Woodford as part of the Ministry of Supply’s Air Fleet conducting radio trials—and impressed spectators at the Farnborough Air Show by performing a barrel roll[15] during his second flypast before the president of the SBAC’s tent. Following two days of demonstrations, he was summoned by military and civil aviation officials and instructed to cease performing this "hazardous" manoeuvre.[15] Equipped with a phase 2 wing by then, XA889 was delivered in March 1956 to the A&AEE for further testing toward obtaining its initial Certificate of Airworthiness, which was granted the following month.[16]
(In 1956, VX777 underwent modification with an even larger phase 2(C) wing and was fitted with Olympus 104 engines, becoming the aerodynamic prototype for the Vulcan B.2.)Template:Fix/category[citation needed]
Vulcan B.1 and B.1A
The initial batch of 15 production B.1 Vulcans were equipped with Olympus 101 engines. A significant number of these early aircraft, often finished in a bare metal appearance, remained under the ownership of the Ministry of Supply and were primarily utilized for testing and development activities. Those assigned to RAF units were delivered to No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), with the first arriving in July 1956.[17] Subsequent models, featuring an anti-flash white paint scheme and powered by Olympus 102 engines generating 12,000 lbf (53 kN) of thrust, began entering squadron service in July 1957.[18] These Olympus 102 engines were later upgraded during maintenance to the Olympus 104 standard, increasing thrust ratings to 13,500 lbf (60 kN).[19]
Although converting B.1s into B.2s was considered, it was ultimately dismissed due to financial constraints. However, to prolong the operational lifespan of the B.1 fleet, 28 surviving aircraft fitted with Olympus 102/104 engines underwent modernization by Armstrong Whitworth between 1959 and 1963 to meet the B.1A specification. This upgrade incorporated elements from the B.2 variant such as electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems,[20] equipment for in-flight refuelling reception,[21] and UHF communication radios.[22] Despite these enhancements, the B.1A models were not structurally reinforced for low-altitude missions and were all retired by 1968.[23]
Vulcan B.2
Development work on the BOl.6 (Olympus 6) engine, capable of delivering 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust, began at Bristol Aero Engines as early as 1952.[24] However, fitting this engine to the B.1 model would have reintroduced aerodynamic buffet issues that necessitated wing redesign.[25]
In May 1956, the decision was made to advance with the Vulcan B.2 series under the guidance of Avro's chief designer Roy Ewans. The first B.2 was projected to be approximately the 45th aircraft out of the 99 on order at that time.[26] This variant was designed to operate at higher altitudes over targets and offered increased operational versatility through integration of in-flight refuelling capabilities and tanker support aircraft.[27] The growing complexity of Soviet air defence systems necessitated installation of ECM technology and reduced vulnerability through deployment of the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile, which was then under development.[28] To evaluate these modifications, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was rebuilt incorporating a larger and thinner phase-2C wing design, enhanced flight control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines; this configuration first flew in August 1957.[29] Several B.1 Vulcans served as testbeds for B.2 developments: XA891 tested BOl.6 (later Olympus 200) engines; XA893 trialed a new AC electrical system; XA895 evaluated ECM including tail cone jammers and a tail warning radar; and XA903 supported Blue Steel missile development.[30]
The initial production B.2 aircraft was XH533—the forty-sixth Vulcan built—which first flew in September 1958 powered by Olympus 200 engines; this occurred six months prior to delivery of the final B.1 model XH532 in March 1959.[31] The second example, XH534, took flight in January 1959 equipped with production Olympus 201 engines rated at 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust; it more closely resembled production standards featuring an in-flight refuelling probe and an ECM tail cone bulge. Early B.2s sometimes lacked these probes and ECM tail cones but were later retrofitted accordingly. The first ten B.2s retained narrow engine air intakes reminiscent of their B.1 predecessors; anticipating more powerful engines, intake ducts were deepened starting with the eleventh aircraft (XH557) onward. Numerous early models remained assigned to testing roles while XH558—the twelfth B.2—became the first delivered to RAF squadrons in July 1960; notably XH558 also became the last Vulcan in RAF service before its retirement in 1992.[32]
The twenty-sixth B.2 produced was XL317—the initial aircraft from a February 1956 production order—marking the first Vulcan outside development units capable of carrying Blue Steel missiles; a total of thirty-three Vulcans were delivered with this capability.[33] Following cancellation of the Blue Steel Mk.2 in favor of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile program in December 1959,[34] modifications were made to accommodate Skybolt missiles under each wing; although Skybolt itself was cancelled in November1962,[35] many aircraft had "Skybolt" blisters installed during delivery or retrofitting phases.[36] Later deliveries featured Olympus301 engines rated at 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust; two earlier airframes (XH557 and XJ784) were re-engined for trials purposes while seven additional aircraft underwent conversion around1963.[37]
The final Vulcan B.2 model XM657 was delivered in1965 with operational service continuing until1984. Throughout its tenure, the B.2 received ongoing upgrades including rapid engine start systems; bomb-bay fuel tanks; structural reinforcement for wing fatigue life enabling low-level flight tactics introduced mid-1960s; enhanced navigation suites including terrain-following radar; standardization on a common nuclear weapon (WE.177); and improved ECM capabilities.[38] Nine units were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance,[39] while six served as airborne refuelling tankers.[40] Avro demonstrated an upgraded bomb rack capable of carrying up to thirty one-thousand-pound bombs instead of twenty-one but this was never adopted.[41] During the1982 Falklands conflict, an updated Vulcan B.2 executed a bombing mission against Port Stanley Airport, covering a round-trip distance of approximately4,000 miles (6,437 km).[42]
Proposed projects and discontinued plans
- Avro Type 718
In 1951, Avro proposed the Type 718, a delta-winged military transport derived from the Type 698, designed to accommodate 80 soldiers or 110 civilian passengers. This model was intended to be powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines.[43]
- Avro Atlantic
The Avro Type 722 Atlantic, introduced in 1952 and publicly announced in June 1953, was a concept for a delta-winged airliner capable of carrying 120 passengers, also based on the Type 698 design.[43]
- Avro Type 732
Presented in 1956, the Avro 732 was a supersonic evolution of the Vulcan bomber. It was planned to be equipped with eight de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. Unlike the earlier Avro 721 low-level bomber proposal from 1952 or the 1954 Avro 730 supersonic canard bomber built with stainless steel—which was cancelled in 1957 before its prototype was finished—the Type 732 clearly reflected its Vulcan lineage.[43]
- Vulcan Phase 6 (Vulcan B.3)
In 1960, the Air Staff commissioned Avro to conduct a study for a missile patrol aircraft capable of carrying up to six Skybolt missiles and sustaining missions lasting up to twelve hours. Avro responded in May of that year with the Phase 6 Vulcan concept, designated as the Vulcan B.3. This version featured an expanded wing spanning 121 ft (37 m), enhanced fuel storage including additional tanks along a dorsal spine, a redesigned main landing gear to support a maximum takeoff weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg), and reheated Olympus 301 engines delivering 30,000 lbf (130 kN) thrust. A revised proposal submitted in October 1960 incorporated a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) forward fuselage extension housing six crew members—one being a relief pilot—all seated facing forward in ejection seats, along with aft-fan variants of the Olympus 301 engines.[44]
- Fighter-support Vulcan
Following the cancellation of the Skybolt program and in response to advancements in Soviet air defenses, Avro suggested modifying the Vulcan to carry three Folland Gnat fighters mounted beneath its wings.[45] These Gnats were intended to be released within hostile airspace to provide fighter escort and were expected either to land in friendly zones or return to the Vulcan for refueling via an onboard flight-refueling drogue system.[46]
Export Offers
Several nations showed interest in acquiring Vulcan bombers; however, like the other V-bomber models, no international sales were ultimately completed.
- Australia
By 1954, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) had already acknowledged that the English Electric Canberra was approaching obsolescence. Various potential successors were evaluated, including the Boeing B-47E, Handley-Page Victor, and Vulcan.
The demand for a Canberra replacement intensified by 1962, coinciding with the emergence of nimble, supersonic strategic strike aircraft such as the North American A-5 Vigilante, BAC TSR-2, and the General Dynamics F-111. Had Australia opted to pre-order the TSR-2, several V-bombers—including Vulcans—would likely have been temporarily allocated to the RAAF. Instead, the F-111C was selected. (Following the TSR-2 cancellation, the UK government nearly mirrored this decision by considering the similar F-111K.)
- Argentina
In the early 1980s, Argentina submitted a request to the UK for purchasing multiple Vulcan bombers. A formal application in September 1981 sought prompt availability of an appropriate aircraft. British ministers granted permission for exporting only one unit, stressing that approval for additional sales had not been authorized. A January 1982 letter from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to the Ministry of Defence expressed skepticism about further sales without confirming Argentina’s genuine interest: "On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands." Less than three months later, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, prompting a swift British embargo on military equipment exports.
Design
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Overview
Although the airframe featured a distinctive and unconventional design, its construction followed conventional principles. Apart from the most heavily stressed sections, the entire framework was fabricated using standard light alloy materials. The airframe was divided into several primary components: the centre section, a rectangular box housing the bomb bay and engine compartments, framed by the front and rear spars and wing transport joints; the intakes and central fuselage; the forward fuselage containing the pressurized cabin; the nose section; the outer wing panels; leading edges; trailing edges of the wings and rear fuselage; and a single swept tail fin with one rudder located on the trailing edge.
The pressure cabin accommodated a crew of five arranged on two levels. The pilot and co-pilot occupied Martin-Baker 3K (3KS on B.2 models) ejection seats in the upper tier, while on the lower level, the navigator radar, navigator plotter, and air electronics officer (AEO) were seated facing backward, exiting through the main entrance door. Initially, the B35/46 specification called for a jettisonable crew compartment, but this was later removed by amendment. The escape system for the rear crew remained a contentious issue, notably when a practical retrofit proposal was declined. A basic sixth seat was installed ahead of the navigator radar for an extra crew member; in B.2 variants, a seventh seat was added opposite this sixth seat and ahead of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer's station could be equipped with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight, while in many B.2 aircraft this area contained a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera used to evaluate simulated low-level bombing exercises.
Fuel storage consisted of 14 bag tanks: four located in the centre fuselage above and behind the nosewheel bay, and five in each outer wing section. These tanks were grouped into four nearly equal-capacity sets, each typically supplying its corresponding engine, though cross-feeding between tanks was feasible. The aircraft’s centre of gravity was automatically regulated by electric timers that controlled booster pump sequencing across the tanks. B.2 models could also be fitted with one or two supplementary fuel tanks installed within the bomb bay.
Although conceived before considerations of low radar cross-section or other stealth features were integrated into aircraft design, a 1957 RAE technical report observed that among all studied aircraft, the Vulcan presented by far the simplest radar reflection profile due to its shape; only one or two components produced significant radar echoes from any angle, compared to three or more on most other types. Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith highlighted that "Due to its all-wing shape, small vertical fin, and buried engines, at some angles [the Avro Vulcan] was nearly invisible to radar." Radar system experts Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan also identified the Vulcan’s form as contributing to reduced radar returns. Aviation writer Doug Richardson acknowledged that while the Vulcan was challenging to detect by radar, he believed this offered limited military advantage. Conversely, electronic warfare specialist and former Vulcan AEO Dr Alfred Price asserted that "the Vulcan [...] possessed a large radar signature."
Colour schemes
The initial two Vulcan prototypes were coated in a glossy white finish. Early production Vulcan B.1s emerged from the factory with an unpainted natural metal surface; their nose radomes were divided, with the forward section painted black and the aft section silver. Operational Vulcan B.1s featured an anti-flash white coating complemented by RAF "type D" roundels. The frontline Vulcan B.1A and B.2 variants maintained a similar appearance but displayed paler roundels.
Following the shift to low-level attack tactics in the mid-1960s, both B.1As and B.2s adopted a glossy sea grey camouflage pattern with medium and dark green disruptive patches on their upper surfaces, paired with white undersides and "type D" roundels. (The final 13 Vulcan B.2s, starting from XM645, were factory-delivered in this scheme.) By the mid-1970s, Vulcan B.2s transitioned to a matte version of this camouflage, featuring light aircraft grey undersides and low-visibility roundels. The B.2(MRR) models applied a similar glossy scheme but omitted the black paint on the front halves of their radomes. Beginning in 1979, ten Vulcans were outfitted with an encompassing camouflage of dark sea grey and dark green due to observations during Red Flag exercises in the United States, where defending SAM units noted that the grey undersides of the Vulcan became highly conspicuous against terrain during steep banking maneuvers.[47]
Avionics
The original radio complement for the Vulcan B.1 consisted of two 10-channel VHF transmitter/receivers (TR-1985/TR-1986) alongside an STR-18 24-channel HF transmitter-receiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A incorporated an additional UHF transmitter-receiver (ARC-52). The initial radio suite for the B.2 closely resembled that of the B.1A but was eventually equipped with the ARC-52, a combined V/UHF transmitter/receiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband HF transmitter-receiver (Collins 618T).
Navigation and bombing systems included an H2S Mk9 radar paired with a Mk1 navigation bombing computer. Mark 2 aircraft featured an upgraded Mk2 navigation bombing computer capable of operating at altitudes up to 60,000 feet, along with a modified synchro system; however, this raised the minimum operational altitude to 17,200 feet. When transitioning to low-altitude missions, the Mk1 ballistic system was reinstated to support altitudes ranging from 7,200 to 50,000 feet.
Additional navigational tools comprised a Marconi radio compass (ADF), GEE Mk3 navigation system, Green Satin Doppler radar for groundspeed and drift angle measurements, radio and radar altimeters, and an instrument landing system. TACAN replaced GEE in both the B.1A and B.2 models by 1964, while around 1969 Decca Doppler 72 superseded Green Satin in the B.2 variant. A ground position indicator provided continuous positional awareness.
Vulcan B.2 models were later outfitted with a free-running dual-gyroscopic heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2 derived from the inertial platform used by the Blue Steel missile when carried onboard. This system included a navigator’s heading unit allowing fine heading adjustments via autopilot in increments as small as 0.1 degrees. The B.2 (MRR) variant also featured LORAN C navigation equipment.
The original electronic countermeasures suite on the B.1A and B.2 comprised one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive radar warning receiver equipped with four aerials; Red Steer tail warning radar; and chaff dispensers. Most ECM gear was housed within an extended tail cone, accompanied by a flat aerial counterpoise plate positioned between the starboard tailpipes. Some Blue Steel-equipped B.2s had an additional aerial plate installed between the port tailpipes due to signal obstruction caused by the lowered Blue Steel fin.
Later ECM enhancements on the B.2 included replacing one Red Shrimp jammer with an L band jammer; introducing the ARI 18146 X-band jammer instead of Green Palm; upgrading to Red Steer Mk.2; adding infrared decoy flares; and fitting the ARI 18228 PWR system featuring aerials that formed a squared top on the fin.[48][49]
Controls
The Vulcan's flight control system utilized a fighter-style control stick alongside a rudder bar to manage powered flight surfaces. Each control surface was actuated by a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except for the rudder, which employed two units for redundancy, with one serving as a backup. The aircraft featured artificial control feel and automatic stabilization through pitch and yaw dampers, complemented by an automatic Mach trimmer.
Traditional flight instruments were standard in the B.1 variant, including G4B compasses, Mk.4 artificial horizons, and zero-reader flight display gauges. Autopilot functionality was provided by a Smiths Mk10 system. In the B.2 model, these components were integrated into the Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), consisting of two beam compasses, two director-horizons, and either an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot unit. Beginning in 1966, B.2 aircraft incorporated the ARI 5959 terrain-following radar (TFR) developed by General Dynamics, with its output interfaced directly into the director-horizons.
Regarding control surfaces, the B.1 was equipped with four inboard elevators and four outboard ailerons. These were replaced on the B.2 by eight elevons combining both functions. The Vulcan also featured six electrically actuated airbrakes with three selectable positions—retracted, medium drag, and high drag—distributed as four on the upper center wing section and two on the lower wing. Initially, there were four lower airbrakes; however, the two outermost were removed prior to operational deployment. Additionally, a brake parachute was housed within the tail cone to assist in deceleration.
Electrical and hydraulic systems
The primary electrical supply for the B.1 and B.1A variants consisted of a 112-volt direct current (DC) system powered by four engine-driven starter-generators rated at 22.5 kilowatts each. Backup power came from four 24-volt batteries connected in series to provide 96 volts total with a capacity of 40 ampere-hours each. Secondary electrical systems included 28-volt DC, single-phase 115-volt alternating current (AC) at 1600 Hz, and three-phase 115-volt AC at 400 Hz; these were generated via transformers and inverters fed from the main DC supply. The 28-volt DC system had an additional backup battery rated at 24 volts.
In pursuit of enhanced reliability and efficiency, the B.2 switched to a three-phase 200-volt AC electrical system operating at 400 Hz supplied by four engine-driven constant-speed alternators rated at 40 kVA each. Engine starts were facilitated by pneumatic starters powered by a ground-based Palouste compressor. Two standby power sources ensured operation during main AC failures: a ram air turbine (RAT) located beneath the port wing producing 17 kVA usable down to altitudes of approximately 20,000 feet, and an airborne auxiliary power unit (AAPP)—a Rover gas turbine coupled to a 40 kVA alternator installed within the starboard wing—capable of starting below 30,000 feet altitude. Backup secondary supplies included transformer-rectifier units delivering 28 V DC and rotary frequency converters providing single-phase 115 V at 1600 Hz.
Transitioning to an AC-based electrical architecture marked a considerable advancement for the Vulcan’s systems. Each Power Flying Control Unit (PFCU) incorporated a hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor—an arrangement now recognized as an electro-hydraulic actuator. Since no manual reversion was available, total electrical failure would result in loss of aircraft control. Although standby batteries on the B.1 were intended to supply sufficient power for twenty minutes of flight time, this proved overly optimistic; two aircraft (XA891 and XA908) crashed due to electrical failures.
The primary hydraulic system supplied pressure for multiple functions: extension and retraction of landing gear with bogie trim adjustments; nosewheel centering and steering; wheel braking equipped with Maxaret anti-skid devices; bomb bay door operation; and on B.2 models only, lowering of the AAPP air scoop. Hydraulic pressure was generated by three pumps mounted on engines Nos. 1, 2, and 3 respectively. An electrically driven hydraulic power pack (EHPP) could operate bomb doors and recharge brake accumulators as needed. For emergency gear extension, a compressed gas system (initially air, later nitrogen) was installed to ensure safe undercarriage deployment in case of hydraulic failure.
Engine
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The Rolls-Royce Olympus, initially designated as the "Bristol BE.10 Olympus",[50][N 2] is a two-spool, axial-flow turbojet engine that powered the Vulcan bomber. Each Vulcan housed four of these engines embedded within the wings, arranged in pairs near the fuselage. The engine's development commenced in 1947, originally intended to power a competing design by the Bristol Aeroplane Company.[52]
Before the Olympus was ready, the prototype Vulcan VX770 conducted its initial flights using Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 engines producing 6,500 lbf (29 kN) of thrust. These were soon replaced by Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.6 engines delivering 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust.[53] Later, VX770 served as a test platform for the Rolls-Royce Conway.[54] The second prototype, VX777, first flew powered by Olympus 100 engines rated at 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust and was later upgraded to Olympus 101 units.[55] When VX777 was fitted with the Phase 2C (B.2) wing in 1957, it carried Olympus 102 engines capable of 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust.[56]
Initial B.1 models were outfitted with Olympus 101 engines, while subsequent deliveries featured Olympus 102 variants. During overhauls, all Olympus 102 units were upgraded to Olympus 104 standards, achieving an uprated thrust of 13,500 lbf (60 kN).[57] The first B.2 variant flew powered by the second-generation Olympus 200 engine,[58] whose design began in 1952.[59] Later B.2 aircraft were equipped with either uprated Olympus 201 or Olympus 301 engines. The Olympus 201 received the designation Olympus 202 when fitted with a rapid air starter.[60] This engine family was further developed into an afterburning (reheat) version intended for the cancelled TSR-2 strike/reconnaissance aircraft and the supersonic passenger transport Concorde.[47]
At approximately ninety percent power output, Vulcan engines produced a distinctive "howling" sound,[61] caused by their air intake configuration; this unique noise became a popular feature during public air displays.[62][63]
Introduction
The RAF welcomed its initial Vulcan B.1, designated XA897, in September 1956, which promptly commenced a global circumnavigation tour. This journey served as a vital showcase of the aircraft’s range and performance capabilities, while also fulfilling diplomatic objectives through goodwill visits to several countries. Throughout their operational tenure, Vulcans frequently traveled to numerous nations and remote Commonwealth regions to symbolize military support and protection. Unfortunately, this inaugural tour ended tragically when, on 1 October 1956, XA897 was destroyed in a fatal crash during a landing attempt at London Heathrow Airport amid poor weather conditions.
The first pair of Vulcans was delivered to 230 OCU in January 1957, with crew training commencing on 21 February that year. The initial OCU graduating group, No. 1 Course, qualified on 21 May 1957 and subsequently established the first flight of No. 83 Squadron. This squadron became the first operational unit to operate the bomber type, initially utilizing Vulcans loaned from the OCU before receiving its own aircraft on 11 July 1956. By September 1957, multiple Vulcans had been allocated to No. 83 Squadron. The second OCU graduating course also contributed a flight to No. 83 Squadron, while later trained crews were assigned to form No. 101 Squadron, the second bomber squadron equipped with Vulcans. The final aircraft from the initial batch of 25 had been delivered to No. 101 Squadron by the end of 1957.
To extend Vulcan missions’ endurance and range, in-flight refuelling capabilities were introduced starting in 1959. Several Valiant bombers were converted into tanker aircraft specifically to refuel Vulcans during flight. However, maintaining continuous airborne patrols proved impractical, and after the withdrawal of Valiant tankers in 1965, refuelling systems across the Vulcan fleet ceased regular use.
Vulcans, alongside other V-force bombers, frequently deployed to the Far East, notably Singapore, where a comprehensive nuclear weapons storage facility had been established in 1959. These deployments supported UK commitments to SEATO operations and often involved joint exercises aimed at evaluating allied defensive readiness. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, plans were made to station three squadrons of V-bombers along with 48 Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons in the region; however, this deployment was ultimately not executed. Vulcan crews trained extensively in the area for both conventional and nuclear roles. In the early 1970s, the RAF opted for a permanent overseas presence by assigning two Vulcan squadrons to the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus. These aircraft were withdrawn mid-decade as intercommunal violence escalated on the island.
Vulcans undertook some notably long-distance flights; for instance, in June 1961 one completed a non-stop journey of approximately 18,507 km from RAF Scampton to Sydney within just over twenty hours, supported by three aerial refuellings. Throughout the 1960s and ’70s, Vulcans visited the United States for airshows and static exhibitions and participated in Strategic Air Command’s Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition at bases such as Barksdale AFB in Louisiana and McCoy AFB in Florida. Additionally, Vulcans took part in Operation Sky Shield in 1961—a large-scale exercise testing NORAD’s defenses against potential Soviet air attacks—where B-47s, B-52s, and a limited number of Vulcans simulated hostile fighter/bomber incursions targeting cities like New York, Chicago, and Washington D.C.; results remained classified until 1997. During the 1974 "Giant Voice" exercise, Vulcans successfully evaded interception attempts by USAF fighters.
Nuclear deterrent
The Vulcan played a crucial role in the United Kingdom's autonomous nuclear deterrent, initially deploying the nation's first nuclear armament, the Blue Danube unguided gravity bomb. This early fission device had a relatively low kiloton yield and was developed prior to the United States' detonation of its inaugural hydrogen bomb. Alongside these, U.S.-owned Mk 5 bombs were introduced through the Project E initiative, later supplemented by the British tactical nuclear weapon, Red Beard. Concurrently, the UK was advancing its own hydrogen bomb program; to bridge the interim period before these weapons became operational, V-bombers were equipped with an Interim Megaton Weapon housed in a Blue Danube casing but containing Green Grass, a large pure-fission warhead with an estimated yield of approximately 400-kiloton-of-TNT (1.7 PJ). This weapon, referred to as Violet Club, saw limited deployment with only five units before its warhead was adapted into a more refined device known as Yellow Sun Mk.1.
The subsequent Yellow Sun Mk 2 incorporated Red Snow, a British-produced version of the American W28 warhead. This model marked the UK's first deployed thermonuclear weapon and was carried by both Vulcan and Handley Page Victor aircraft. Meanwhile, the Valiant bomber continued to carry U.S. nuclear weapons allocated to SACEUR under dual-key control arrangements. Additionally, Red Beard weapons were stationed in Singapore for use by Vulcan and Victor bombers. Starting in 1963, three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s alongside two Victor B.2 squadrons were equipped with the Blue Steel stand-off missile—a rocket-powered weapon armed with the 1.1 Mt (4.6 PJ) yield Red Snow warhead.
From 1958 onward, RAF Bomber Command collaborated with the Strategic Air Command under the Single Integrated Operational Plan, ensuring comprehensive targeting coverage of significant Soviet sites; by late 1959, 108 RAF V-bombers had assigned targets within this plan. Commencing in 1962, each RAF bomber base maintained one aircraft per squadron armed with nuclear weapons on continuous Quick Reaction Alert (QRA). Vulcans on QRA were expected to be airborne within four minutes following an alert—a timeframe determined by the interval between detection of a Soviet nuclear strike launch and its impact on Britain. The closest instance of Vulcans nearing active nuclear engagement occurred during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, when Bomber Command elevated readiness to Alert Condition 3; this heightened state lasted until early November.
Plans called for Vulcans to be outfitted with the Skybolt missile as a replacement for Blue Steel, with Vulcan B.2 models designed to carry two Skybolts on wing pylons—modifications applied to the final 28 B.2 aircraft during production. A proposed B.3 variant, featuring an extended wingspan capable of accommodating up to six Skybolts, was introduced in 1960. However, following President John F. Kennedy’s cancellation of the Skybolt program in 1962—prompted by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and leading to the Skybolt Crisis—Blue Steel remained in service. Until the Royal Navy assumed strategic deterrence duties with submarines equipped with Polaris SLBMs, Vulcan bombers adopted a revised operational approach: cruising at high altitude during transit under clear conditions, descending to low altitude near targets to evade defenses, and deploying a parachute-retarded bomb variant designated WE.177B.
Prior to WE.177’s introduction with laydown delivery capability, attack profiles involved a pop-up maneuver allowing sufficient arming time for Yellow Sun bombs—initially climbing to approximately 11,000 feet before releasing in level flight. To further minimize exposure to surface-to-air missiles during release, tactics evolved to include climbs at specific angles and distances depending on aircraft variant and engine configurations—for example, Mk 2 Vulcans fitted with 301 series engines would pop up at around 18,450 yards from target at a 15° climb angle before releasing at roughly 10,500 feet altitude. Given that these aircraft were optimized for high-altitude operation, training low-level cruise speeds were capped at 240 knots with bursts not exceeding 350 knots during practice attacks to manage airframe fatigue; operational missions planned speeds included low-level cruise at 325 knots and higher speeds up to 375 knots—with authorization for a single dash reaching up to 415 knots for about ten minutes, likely corresponding to final attack phases. Anecdotal accounts describe experiencing over 400 knots prior to formal release clearance during trials, although turbulence was notable at such speeds. RAF Air Vice Marshal Ron Dick, himself a former Vulcan pilot, questioned whether such low-level flight profiles would have been effective against Soviet defenses.
Following deployment of British Polaris submarines and Blue Steel’s retirement in 1970, Vulcans transitioned primarily to carrying WE.177B weapons for tactical nuclear strike missions within NATO's European forces framework; however, peacetime readiness no longer required aircraft to be held at fifteen minutes’ notice. Two squadrons based in Cyprus operated under Near East Air Force command and were assigned strategic strike roles aligned with the Central Treaty Organization. As both WE.177B and Vulcan bombers eventually phased out, platforms such as the Blackburn Buccaneer, SEPECAT Jaguar, and Panavia Tornado continued utilizing WE.177C until its withdrawal in 1998. Although not an exact replacement for the Vulcan’s capabilities, the multi-role Tornado interdictor/strike aircraft assumed many of its former operational responsibilities.
Conventional function
While primarily equipped with nuclear weapons during active service, the Vulcan also fulfilled a secondary role involving conventional ordnance. In conventional strike operations, it was capable of carrying up to 21 bombs weighing 1,000 lb (454 kg) each within its bomb bay.[64] From the 1960s onward, Vulcan squadrons regularly undertook conventional training sorties; aircrews were trained to execute conventional bombing assignments alongside their primary nuclear strike responsibilities.[65] Different attack profiles were practiced depending on anticipated enemy defences. Against targets protected by fighter aircraft and surface-to-air missiles (SAM), a laydown delivery profile using a retard tail unit (Mk 117) was preferred. For targets shielded by Soviet SA2 Guideline missiles, the Vulcan could perform a pop-up maneuver to approximately 2,500 feet—above the SAM engagement zone but below bomb self-damage thresholds for free-fall weapons. When facing air defence artillery, the aircraft might ascend to around 8,000 feet to reduce vulnerability to gunfire and enable automated bombing calculations via the Navigation and Bombing System Calc 3.
The Vulcan’s only combat operations occurred late in its service life during 1982. In the Falklands War, it was deployed against Argentine forces occupying the Falkland Islands. These sorties became known as the Black Buck raids, with each Vulcan flying approximately 3,889 mi (6,259 km) from Ascension Island to reach Stanley on the Falklands. Victor tankers provided vital air-to-air refuelling support, enabling the Vulcans to complete these extensive missions; each operation consumed roughly 1,100,000 imp gal (5,000,000 L) of fuel.[66]
Preparation work for the five Vulcans assigned to these missions commenced on 9 April.[67][68] Modifications included adjustments to the bomb bay, reactivation of the previously dormant in-flight refuelling system, installation of an updated navigation system inspired by that of the Vickers VC10, and upgrades to various onboard electronic systems. Additionally, new pylons were mounted beneath the wings to accommodate an electronic countermeasures (ECM) pod and Shrike anti-radar missiles on wing hardpoints.
The inaugural mission took place on 1 May when a single Vulcan (XM607) flew over Port Stanley, delivering bombs aimed at the airfield’s runway—achieving one direct hit that rendered it unsuitable for fighter operations. This initial strike was rapidly followed by attacks targeting anti-aircraft installations conducted by British Aerospace Sea Harriers operating from Royal Navy carriers.[69] Two further missions involved missile attacks against radar sites, while two planned operations were cancelled.[66] At that time, these sorties set records as some of the longest-range bombing raids worldwide.[64][70] The Vulcans’ ECM capabilities proved effective in jamming Argentine radar systems; their presence in the combat zone reduced the likelihood of successful enemy fire against other British aircraft.[71]
On 3 June 1982, during "Black Buck 6," Vulcan B.2 XM597 from No. 50 Squadron targeted Argentine radar installations at Stanley airfield. However, while attempting refuelling for its return flight to Ascension Island, its probe malfunctioned and broke, leaving insufficient fuel reserves. Consequently, it diverted to Galeão Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro, located in neutral Brazil. En route, classified documents were discarded along with two remaining AGM-45 Shrike missiles—one of which failed to launch. Following a distress call, Brazilian Air Force Northrop F-5 fighters escorted the Vulcan as it made an emergency landing in Rio with minimal fuel remaining.[72] Both aircraft and crew were held until hostilities concluded nine days later.[73]
Reconnaissance
In November 1973, following the scheduled disbandment of No. 543 Squadron, which operated Victor SR.2 aircraft, No. 27 Squadron was re-established at RAF Scampton, equipped with Vulcan bombers to assume the maritime radar reconnaissance mission.[74][N 3] Operating primarily over the waters surrounding the British Isles—including the strategically critical GIUK gap between Iceland and the UK—the squadron conducted high-altitude patrols utilizing the Vulcan’s H2S radar system to track maritime traffic. During peacetime missions, this surveillance was supplemented by low-level flights for visual confirmation and photographic documentation of targets of interest. In wartime scenarios, Vulcans would delegate visual target identification to Buccaneers or Canberras and could direct Buccaneer strikes against enemy vessels.[76] Initially outfitted with several B.2 models,[77] the squadron eventually operated nine B.2 (MRR) aircraft—also unofficially known as SR.2.[39][78] These planes were adapted for their reconnaissance role by removing the TFR and its associated thimble radome and installing LORAN C radio navigation equipment. Visually, they were distinguished by a glossy finish and a light grey underside designed to resist corrosion from sea spray.[39]
Additionally, No. 27 Squadron took over the secondary air sampling role from No. 543 Squadron.[39] This task entailed flying through contaminated plumes to collect airborne particles released by nuclear tests—both atmospheric and subterranean—for subsequent examination at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment in Aldermaston.[79] Five aircraft were equipped with small pylons on now-unused Skybolt hardpoints to carry sampling pods adapted from drop tanks.[N 4] These pods contained filters to capture necessary samples, complemented by a smaller "localiser" pod mounted on the port wing between the main pylons.[75][78][80]
The squadron was disbanded at Scampton in March 1982, with its maritime radar reconnaissance responsibilities transferred to RAF Nimrod aircraft.[78]
Aerial refuelling function
Although the Vulcan B.2 was scheduled for retirement from RAF service in 1982 following the Falklands War,[81] the conflict had significantly depleted the airframe fatigue life of the RAF's Victor tankers. Despite having ordered Vickers VC10 tanker conversions in 1979,[82] and plans to acquire Lockheed TriStar tankers after the war,[83] six Vulcan aircraft were converted into single-point refuelling tankers as an interim solution. This conversion involved removing electronic countermeasure jammers from the tail ECM bay and installing a single hose drum unit in their place.[68] Additionally, a cylindrical bomb-bay fuel tank was added, increasing fuel capacity to nearly 100,000 lb (45,000 kg).[68][84]
Approval for the modification of these six Vulcans was granted on 4 May 1982.[85] Remarkably, within just fifty days of authorization, the first tanker variant, XH561, was delivered to RAF Waddington.[68][85] No. 50 Squadron operated these Vulcan K.2 tankers alongside three Vulcan B.2s to support UK air defence missions until the squadron's disbandment in March 1984.[86]
Vulcan Display Flight
Following No. 50 Squadron’s disbandment, two Vulcans remained active within the RAF for aerial display purposes as part of the Vulcan Display Flight. Although based at Waddington, administrative control was maintained by No. 55 Squadron at RAF Marham. The initial display aircraft was XL426, which was sold in 1986 and replaced by XH558, which had begun public displays in 1985. The Vulcan Display Flight continued operations with XH558 until its conclusion in 1992 when budget reductions led the Ministry of Defence to deem its operation financially unsustainable. Both XL426 and XH558 were preserved post-service, whereas a third airframe, XH560—held in reserve initially—was eventually scrapped.
Engine test platforms
- The prototype VX770 had its Sapphire engines replaced by four Rolls-Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofan engines producing 15,000 lbf (67 kN) thrust each in 1957 and was then transferred to Rolls-Royce as a Conway test platform.[87] It operated with these pioneering turbofans until it suffered a fatal accident in September 1958.[88]
- The initial Vulcan B.1 XA889 served as the testbed for flight clearances of Olympus models 102 and 104.[89]
- In spring 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA891 was equipped with four Olympus 200 engines for extensive flight testing but crashed during a routine test flight in July that year.[90]
- Vulcan B.1 XA894 flew with five Olympus engines: four standard Mk.101s plus an additional reheated Olympus 320 mounted beneath the wing intended for the BAC TSR-2 project; this aircraft was lost in a ground fire at Filton on December 3, 1962.[88]
- Withdrawn from RAF use in June 1964, Vulcan B.1 XA896 was earmarked for conversion into a test bed for the Bristol Siddeley BS100 vectored thrust turbofan designed for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154; however, after cancellation of the P.1154 in February 1965, XA896 was scrapped before conversion could occur.[91]
- After being withdrawn following a landing mishap in 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA902 was rebuilt and took over from VX770 as the Conway test bed fitted with four RCo.11 engines; later modifications replaced the two inner Conways with Rolls-Royce Spey engines, first flown in this configuration on October 12, 1961.[88]
- Surplus to Blue Steel missile trials requirements, Vulcan B.1 XA903 was modified similarly to XA894 to conduct flight testing of the Olympus 593 engine intended for Concorde; its maiden flight occurred on October 1, 1966 with testing continuing until June 1971.[92] In April 1973, XA903 flew fitted with an underslung Rolls-Royce RB.199 turbofan destined for the Panavia Tornado program; it was the final B.1 variant to fly before retirement in February 1979.[93]
- The Vulcan B.2 XH557 was employed by British Aircraft Corporation Engine Division (BSEL) to develop the Olympus 301 engine and first flew equipped with this larger engine in May of 1961 before returning to Woodford Aerodrome in 1964 for refurbishment prior to rejoining RAF service.[94]
Variants
- B.1
- The original production model of the aircraft. Early units featured straight leading edges, which were subsequently upgraded to the Phase 2 (kinked) wing design. Initial finishes were silver, later replaced by an anti-flash white coating. Between 1959 and 1963, many were updated to the B.1A configuration. The final unmodified B.1s serving with No. 230 OCU in the RAF were retired by 1966. The last recorded flight of any B.1, an engine testbed XA903, took place in March 1979.
- B.1A
- This variant was a B.1 equipped with an ECM suite housed within an enlarged tail cone similar to that of the B.2. Unlike the B.2, B.1As did not receive significant wing reinforcement for low-level operations and were phased out between 1966 and 1967.
- B.2
- An advanced iteration of the B.1 featuring a larger, thinner Phase 2C wing and powered by Olympus 201-202 or Olympus 301 engines. Electrical systems were upgraded with AAPP and a Ram Air Turbine (RAT). The ECM system resembled that of the B.1A. Most units had a Thrust-Fan Radar (TFR) installed within a nose thimble radome during the mid-1960s. From the mid-1970s onward, new radar warning receiver antennas on the tail fin gave it a distinctive squared-off top. Some references mention a Vulcan B.2A designation, purportedly applied to B.2s fitted with Olympus Mk 301 engines or modified for Blue Steel missile carriage; however, officially only the B.2 designation was used except for maritime reconnaissance and tanker variants.
- B.2 (MRR)
- Nine B.2 aircraft converted for maritime radar reconnaissance (MRR) roles, with the TFR removed. Five of these were further adapted for atmospheric sampling missions and featured a distinctive glossy finish with a light grey underside.
- K.2
- Six B.2 airframes modified to serve as air-to-air refuelling tankers, equipped with a Mark 17 hose drum unit (HDU) semi-recessed into the tail cone and lacking the TFR. They carried three bomb-bay drum tanks and were uniquely capable among Vulcans of jettisoning fuel during emergencies.
- B.3
- A conceptual design intended as an extended-endurance missile carrier capable of transporting up to six Skybolt missiles on sorties lasting as long as twelve hours. This version was never constructed.
Production
Woodford Aerodrome produced a total of 134 Vulcans: 45 built to the B.1 specification and 89 as B.2 models, with the final delivery to the RAF occurring in January 1965.
| Contract date | Quantity | Variant | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6 Jul 1948 | Template:Right | Prototypes | Two prototypes were delivered in August 1952 and September 1953. |
| 14 Aug 1952 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.1 | The first production flight took place on 4 February 1955; deliveries occurred from June 1955 through December 1957. |
| 30 Sep 1954 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.1 | Delivered between January 1958 and April 1959. |
| 30 Sep 1954 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered from September 1959 until December 1960. |
| 31 Mar 1955 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered between January and May 1961. |
| 25 Feb 1956 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered from July 1961 through November 1962. |
| 22 Jan 1958 | Template:Right | Vulcan B.2 | Delivered between February 1963 and January 1965; one unit was retained as a static test airframe and never flown. |
| Total | Template:Right |
Operators
- Aircraft from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment utilized for testing and assessment
- Royal Air Force
- 9 Squadron operated the B.2 model between 1962 and 1982
- 12 Squadron flew the B.2 variant from 1962 until 1967
- 27 Squadron used the B.2 from 1961 to 1972 and then the B.2 (MRR) version from 1973 to 1982
- 35 Squadron employed the B.2 between 1962 and 1982
- 44 Squadron operated the B.1/B.1A from 1960 to 1967 and transitioned to the B.2 from 1966 through 1982
- 50 Squadron flew the B.1/B.1A from 1961 to 1966, switched to the B.2 from 1966 to 1984, and additionally operated the K.2 tanker variant between 1982 and 1984
- 83 Squadron, the initial Vulcan squadron, flew the B.1/B.1A from 1957 to 1960, then the B.2 until 1969
- 101 Squadron operated the B.1/B1A from 1957 to 1967 before converting to the B.2 until 1982
- 617 Squadron flew OB.1/B1A models from 1958 to 1961 and continued with the B.2 variant through to 1981
- 230 OCU, active from 1956 until 1981, was the first unit assigned Vulcans, providing crew conversion and operational training
- Bomber Command Development Unit
- The Vulcan To The Sky Trust operated G-VLCN (formerly XH558), which remained airworthy until 2015 and was based at Doncaster Sheffield Airport until June 2023
- Various aircraft were also flown at different periods under Ministry of Supply/Aviation oversight for experimental purposes by Avro, Bristol Siddeley Engines, Rolls-Royce, and the Blind Landing Experimental Unit (BLEU)
Bases
- RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus: hosted two B.2 squadrons between 1969 and 1975
- No. 9 Squadron relocated here from Cottesmore in 1969 and returned to Waddington in the UK in 1975
- No. 35 Squadron also transferred from Cottesmore in 1969 before moving back to Scampton in 1975
- RAF Coningsby: home to three squadrons during the period of 1962–1964
- No. 9 Squadron formed here in 1962 for B.2 operations before shifting to Cottesmore in 1964
- No. 12 Squadron established at Coningsby in 1962 with B.2 aircraft, moving to Cottesmore in ’64
- No. 35 Squadron similarly formed at Coningsby in ’62 for B.2 service then moved to Cottesmore in ’64
- RAF Cottesmore: hosted three squadrons between 1964 and ’69
- No. 9 Squadron arrived from Coningsby in ’64 before relocating to Akrotiri in ’69
- No. 12 Squadron was based here from ’64 until its disbandment in ’67
- No. 35 Squadron moved here in ’64 and transferred to Akrotiri in ’69
- RAF Finningley:
- No. 101 Squadron operated here from its formation in ’57 until moving to Waddington in ’61
- The conversion unit, No. 230 OCU, based here between ’61 and ’69 before relocating to Scampton
- RAF Scampton accommodated four squadrons at various times between ’61 and ’82
- No. 27 Squadron formed here in ’61 for B.2 service until disbanded in ’72; reactivated in ’73 for B.2 (MRR) operations until ’82
- No. 35 Squadron returned here from Akrotiri in ’75 operating B.2s until disbanding in March ’82
- No. 83 Squadron reformed at Scampton in ’60 flying B.2s until its disbandment in ’69; previously operated B.1/B.1A at Waddington
- No. 617 Squadron was active here from ’58 with B.1s, reformed with B.2s in ’61, disbanding in ’81
- The conversion unit, No. 230 OCU, transferred here from Finningley in ’69 and remained until disbanded in ’81
- RAF Waddington: served as both first and final operational base for Vulcans with multiple squadrons between ’57 and ’84
- No. 9 Squadron moved here from Akrotiri in ’75 until its disbandment in ’82
- No. 44 Squadron formed at Waddington in ’60 operating B.1/B1A models, converted to B.2s by ’66, disbanded by ’82
- No. 50 Squadron established here in ’61 flying B1/B1A, transitioned to B2s by ‘66; added tanker K variants starting ‘82 until disbandment ‘84
- No. 83 Squadron initially formed here as first operational squadron on B1s from ‘57–’60 before reforming later that year at Scampton with B2s
- No. 101 Squadron moved here from Finningley in ‘61 with early models converting to B2 by ‘67 before disbanding ‘82
- The training unit, No. 230 OCU, formed at Waddington in ‘56 for Vulcan crew training before relocating first to Finningley then finally Scampton by ‘70
V-Bomber dispersal airfields
Should a transition to war occur, V Bomber squadrons were instructed to rapidly deploy four aircraft each to 26 designated dispersal airfields scattered across the United Kingdom. In the early 1960s, the RAF procured 20 Beagle Basset communication planes specifically to transport crews to these dispersal locations. However, the significance of these aircraft was short-lived, as their role diminished following the shift of the principal nuclear deterrent to the Royal Navy's Polaris (UK nuclear programme).
Accidents and incidents
- On 1 October 1956, Vulcan B.1 XA897—the first delivered—crashed at London Heathrow Airport during Operation Tasman Flight, a goodwill tour to Australia and New Zealand. After a ground-controlled approach amid poor weather conditions, the aircraft impacted the ground approximately 700 yd (640 m) short of the runway just as engine power was being applied. The collision likely severed drag links on the main landing gear, causing it to be forced backward and damaging the wing’s trailing edge. Following this initial impact, XA897 briefly became airborne again. Squadron Leader D. R. Howard, the pilot, and Air Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst, co-pilot and AOC-in-C Bomber Command, ejected safely; however, the remaining four occupants—including a spare pilot and an Avro representative—perished when the aircraft subsequently crashed and disintegrated.
- In 1957, Vulcan B.1 XA892, assigned to A&AEE at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing, unintentionally exceeded an indicated Mach number (IMN) of 1.04, confirming it had reached supersonic speed. The flight crew—Commander Flt Lt Milt Cottee (RAAF) and co-pilot Flt Lt Ray Bray (RAF)—were tasked with flying at 478 mph (769 km/h) and 0.98 IMN, subjecting the aircraft to a load factor of 3 g. After climbing to 35,000 ft (11,000 m), they initiated a dive intending to reach target speed at 27,000 ft (8,200 m). Approaching this altitude, throttles were closed and full up-elevator applied; nevertheless, XA892 continued pitching nose-down. Cottee considered inverting the aircraft but instead deployed speed brakes. Despite operating beyond their maximum rated airspeed, the speed brakes remained intact and successfully reduced velocity, allowing recovery past vertical at about 18,000 ft (5,500 m) and leveling off near 8,000 ft (2,400 m). No sonic boom was recorded; thus Mach 1.0 was unlikely reached in reality. Later inspection revealed deformation in a rear bulkhead.
- On 20 September 1958, prototype Vulcan VX770 was piloted by a Rolls-Royce test pilot during an engine performance flight combined with a flypast at RAF Syerston's Battle of Britain At Home event. After flying along the main runway and initiating a starboard roll with slight climb, the starboard wing disintegrated due to main spar failure. The aircraft entered a dive with flames engulfing the starboard wing before crashing, resulting in fatalities including three individuals in a nearby controllers' caravan and all four crew aboard VX770. Investigations suggested causes ranging from pilot error and metal fatigue from air intake vibrations to insufficient maintenance. Avro Chief Test Pilot Tony Blackman noted that routine post-aerobatic inspections of wing leading edges by Avro pilots might not have been known or conducted by Rolls-Royce test pilots; VX770 may have sustained prior structural damage.
- On 24 October 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA908 of No. 83 Squadron RAF crashed east of Detroit, Michigan after experiencing total electrical failure near 30,000 ft (9,100 m) altitude. Although backup power was designed to last twenty minutes enabling diversion to nearby airports, it lasted only three minutes due to a short circuit locking controls. En route to Lincoln AFB in Nebraska, XA908 entered a steep dive before impact that created a 40-foot (12 m) crater excavated during wreckage recovery efforts. Despite extensive property damage on the ground, there were no fatalities among civilians and only one injury reported; all six crew members died—including the co-pilot who had ejected but whose body was recovered months later from Lake St Clair. The crew were interred at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Trenton alongside RAF student pilots lost during WWII accidents nearby.
- On 24 July 1959, Vulcan B.1 XA891 suffered an electrical failure during an engine test shortly after takeoff when generator warning lights illuminated and busbar voltage dropped. Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison climbed to 14,000 ft (4,300 m), steering away from populated zones while attempts were made to resolve the issue. Upon realizing control could not be regained, he ordered rear compartment crew to evacuate and directed co-pilot ejection before ejecting himself; all survived as XA891 crashed near Kingston upon Hull—the first instance of an entire Vulcan crew escaping successfully.
- On 26 October 1959, Vulcan B.1 XH498 participated in an airshow celebrating Wellington International Airport’s opening (formerly Rongotai Airport). After performing a "touch-and-go landing" on Runway 34 followed by a full-stop landing attempt, turbulence and wind shear caused XH498 to touch down short of the runway threshold. The port undercarriage leg struck an embankment at Moa Point’s southern end damaging wing attachments, fuel lines, and rupturing the main landing gear drag link which compromised support for the aircraft. The port wing tip nearly contacted the runway before lifting off again; fuel spilled over spectators gathered on the western apron but pilot actions prevented catastrophe. XH498 diverted safely to RNZAF Ohakea landing on nose and starboard gear with minimal further damage; it was repaired by a UK team and returned to service until October 1967.
- On 16 September 1960, Vulcan B.2 XH557 damaged Bristol Filton Airport’s "Runway Garage" while being delivered for Olympus 301 engine testing by Bristol Siddeley Engines. Approaching in poor weather conditions, XH557 touched down midway along the runway; deploying its braking parachute but realizing stopping distance was insufficient, throttles were opened for go-around causing jet blast that damaged four petrol pumps, knocked down a streetlight on A38 road, toppled railings and shattered multiple car windscreens nearby. The aircraft diverted to St Mawgan before returning later for repairs.
- On 12 June 1963, Vulcan B.1A XH477 from No. 50 Squadron RAF crashed into terrain during a low-level exercise over Aberdeenshire, Scotland; all five crew members died.
- On 11 May 1964 during a demonstration flight from Boscombe Down, Vulcan B.2 XH535 entered a spin while demonstrating very low speed combined with high descent rate maneuvers. Deployment of its drag chute temporarily arrested the spin before it resumed; around 2,500 ft (760 m), crew were ordered to abandon aircraft with commander and co-pilot ejecting successfully while rear compartment crew presumably failed due to high g forces during spin.
- On 16 July 1964 near Anglesey, Vulcan B.1A XA909 suffered mid-air explosion resulting in shutdown of engines No.3 and No.4 caused by bearing failure in engine No.4; extensive starboard wing damage ensued with inadequate aileron control and unreliable airspeed indications forcing successful crew bailout within minutes.
- On 7 October 1964 at Coningsby during an asymmetric power practice overshoot approach involving two engines at thrust and two idle engines piloted by co-pilot under supervision of unfamiliar squadron commander resulted in loss of control due to asymmetric thrust exceeding rudder authority causing spin crash that killed entire crew.
- On 25 May 1965 Vulcan B.2 XM576 crash-landed at Scampton shortly after delivery leading to write-off within one year.
- On 11 February 1966 during low-level exercise over Brecon Beacons area near Fan Bwlch Chwyth summit (altitude approx 1,910 feet (580 m)), Vulcan B.2 XH536 from IX Squadron Cottesmore Wing struck terrain amid snow-covered hills and low cloud cover (~1,400 feet (430 m)), killing all onboard.
- On 6 April 1967 at RAF Scampton during takeoff run Vulcan B.2 XL385 caught fire destroying aircraft carrying Blue Steel missile training round; all onboard including an Air Training Corps cadet escaped unharmed; cause traced to Olympus 301 HP turbine disc failure upon reaching full power.
- On 30 January 1968 following bomb-bay overheat indications causing return flight to RAF Cottesmore Vulcan B.2 XM604 lost control during overshoot resulting in fatal rear crew casualties while both pilots ejected; captain survived due to parachute snag on power cables; accident linked to Olympus 301 LP turbine disc failure.
- On 7 January 1971 Vulcan B.2 XM610 from No.44 Squadron experienced blade fatigue failure in No.1 engine causing fuel system damage and fire; crew evacuated safely prior to crash landing harmlessly near Wingate.
- On 14 October 1975 Vulcan B.2 XM645 of No.9 Squadron undershot runway at RAF Luqa Malta losing left undercarriage causing structural damage; broke up over Żabbar town during emergency approach; pilot and co-pilot ejected safely while five other crew perished; debris caused one civilian fatality (Vincenza Zammit) and injuries among approximately twenty residents.
- On 17 January 1977 near Spilsby Lincolnshire Vulcan B.2 XM600 from No.101 Squadron crashed following bomb-bay fire warning leading to No.2 engine fire; flames observed near deployed ram air turbine (RAT); captain ordered evacuation with rear crew escaping around 6,000 feet (1,800 m), co-pilot ejected earlier; captain ejected late losing control; fire originated from electrical arcing on RAT terminals igniting adjacent fuel pipe.
- On 12 August 1978 during an unauthorized air display at Naval Air Station Glenview Illinois USA Vulcan B.2 XL390 of No.617 Squadron stalled after low-level pull-up following wingover maneuver below approximately 100 feet (30 m), crashing with no survivors among crew.
- On 3 June 1982 returning from Falklands mission Vulcan XM597 suffered probe breakage during aerial refueling attempt causing fuel shortage preventing return to base on Ascension Island; pilot jettisoned classified materials over Atlantic then diverted into Brazilian airspace where escorted by Brazilian Air Force fighters leading to diplomatic negotiations; after seven days detained aircraft allowed homebound provided no further Falklands involvement occurred.
- On 28 May 2012 while initiating takeoff roll from Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Vulcan B.2 XH558 encountered simultaneous failure of both port engines due to accidental ingestion of silica gel desiccant bags left within air intake post-maintenance; engines destroyed immediately but fire suppression systems prevented structural or control damage allowing safe stop on runway; aircraft resumed flight operations on 3 July that year.[95]
Surviving aircraft
A number of Vulcan bombers remain preserved, displayed in museums across the United Kingdom and North America (including the United States and Canada). Among these, XH558 (G-VLCN) Spirit of Great Britain served as a RAF display aircraft within the Vulcan Display Flight until its retirement in 1993. After being grounded, it was subsequently restored to airworthiness by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and operated as a civilian demonstration aircraft from 2008 to 2015, before being retired once more due to engineering constraints. Post-retirement, XH558 is planned to remain at Doncaster Sheffield Airport where it will be maintained as a taxiable aircraft—a status already held by two other surviving Vulcans: XL426 (G-VJET) stationed at Southend Airport, and XM655 (G-VULC), located at Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield. Additionally, XJ823, a B.2 variant, is exhibited at the Solway Aviation Museum at Carlisle Lake District Airport. The Vulcan XM607 is undergoing restoration at RAF Waddington, where it has served as a gate guardian since retirement. Meanwhile, XM594 is on public display at the Newark Air Museum in Newark, Nottinghamshire, England.
Specifications (B.1)
Comparison of Variants
| B.1 | B.1A | B.2 | B.2 (MRR) | K.2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wingspan | 99 ft 5 in (30.30 m) | 111 ft 0 in (33.83 m) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Length | 97 ft 1 in (29.59 m) | 105 ft 6 in (32.16 m) [99 ft 11 in (30.45 m) excluding probe] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Height | 26 ft 6 in (8.08 m) | 27 ft 1 in (8.26 m) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Wing area | 3,554 sq ft (330.2 m2)[98] | 3,964 sq ft (368.3 m2)[98] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Maximum takeoff weight | 167,000 lb (76,000 kg) 185,000 lb (84,000 kg) (operational requirement) |
204,000 lb (93,000 kg) | Cruising speed | Mach 0.86 indicated | Maximum speed | Mach 0.95 indicated | Mach 0.93 indicated (Mach 0.92 with 301 engines) |
Mach 0.93 indicated | Unknown | Service ceiling | 56,000 ft[98] | 45,000 ft to 60,000 ft[nb 1] | Electrical system | 112 V direct current (DC) | 115/200 V alternating current (AC), Three-phase electric power 400 Hertz (Hz) | Emergency electrical system | Battery powered | Ram air turbine and Auxiliary power unit (Airborne Auxiliary Power Plant) | Engines | 4 × Rolls-Royce Olympus Bristol Olympus 101, 102, or 104 variants |
4 × Bristol Olympus 104 | 4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series, model 301 | 4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series engines | Main fuel capacity | 9,280 imp gal (11,140 US gal; 42,200 L) / 74,240 lb (33,670 kg) Jet fuel (avtur)[nb 2] | 9,260 imp gal (11,120 US gal; 42,100 L) / 74,080 lb (33,600 kg) | Bomb bay fuel capacity | None | 0 – −1,990 (impgal[convert: unknown unit] / {{cvt 0 |- |-15920 (lb)}} | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | Bomb bay fuel capacity (continued) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Powered flight controls | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| - Armament | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Prominent media appearances
See also
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Notes
- ↑ An order for 25 production units was placed in July 1952. An equivalent number of the competing Handley Page design, later named Victor, were also commissioned.[13]
- ↑ Bristol Aero Engines merged with Armstrong Siddeley in 1959 to form Bristol Siddeley, which was subsequently acquired by Rolls-Royce in 1966.[51]
- ↑ No. 35 and No. 617 Squadrons, also part of the Scampton Wing, maintained secondary maritime reconnaissance responsibilities.[75]
- ↑ There is some debate regarding the origin of these pods: some sources indicate they were converted from de Havilland Sea Vixen drop tanks,[39] while others suggest they derived from Hawker Hunter tanks.[78]
Citations
- ↑ Wynn 1997, pp. 7, 16.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 18.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, pp. 44–46.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 47.
- ↑ The Vulcan Story by the Technical Editor, Flight, 31 January 1958, p.143
- ↑ The Avro Type 698 Vulcan The Secrets Behind Its Design And Development, David W. Fildes 2012, ISBN 978 1 84884 284 7, Bob Lindley recollections p.18
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Gunston, W.T. "The Vulcan Story." Archived 6 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight, 31 January 1958, p. 143.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 23, 24.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Laming 2002, p. 26.
- ↑ Buttler 2003, p. 31.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, pp. 52–54.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, pp. 82/83
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 62.
- ↑ Blackman 2007, p. 48.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Blackman 2007, pp. 128–129.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 48.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 217–219.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 145.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 46.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey, 2009, p. 12.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes intro. Para. 1.
- ↑ Pilot's Notes pt. 1, ch. 16, para. 5.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 217–220.
- ↑ 16,000 lb Thrust Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight 15 February 1957 p 200
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 62.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, pp. 315, 316.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 154.
- ↑ Wynn 1997, p. 314.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 82.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 218, 219
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 230.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 63,64.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p.152.
- ↑ Wynn1997,p401.
- ↑ Bulman2001,p155–161.
- ↑ Bulman2001,p155–161.
- ↑ Bulman2001,p149–150.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey2009,p21–23.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 Brookes and Davey2009,p83.
- ↑ Darling2007,p122.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Cite error: Invalid
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<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedGibson - ↑ Force V: The history of Britain's airborne deterrent, by Andrew Brookes. Jane's Publishing Co Ltd; First Edition 1 Jan. 1982, ISBN 0710602383, p.131.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 Buttler 2007, p. 72.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
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<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedbrookes57 - ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 18.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 11.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 13.
- ↑ Laming 2002, pp. 45, 46.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 108.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 47.
- ↑ Laming 2002, p. 63.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, pp. 44–46.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, p. 50.
- ↑ "16,000 lb Thrust." Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight, 15 February 1957, p. 200.
- ↑ Baxter 1990, pp. 50–64.
- ↑ "We all love the howl" Archived 11 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine Vulcan To The Sky Trust, 13 December 2013.
- ↑ "Will 'howl' of the Vulcan bomber be heard over Bournemouth again?" The Daily Echo, 30 December 2009.
- ↑ "Vulcan XH558 Awesome Howl Sounds" Archived 17 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine YouTube, 28 October 2012.
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 Bull 2004, p. 84.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 63.
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 "The Falkland Islands: A history of the 1982 conflict." Royal Air Force, 29 April 2010.
- ↑ Darling 2007, pp. 116–117.
- ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 Braybook 1982, p. 17.
- ↑ Hearn 2007, p. 268.
- ↑ White 2006
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 118.
- ↑ Kev Darling, RAR Illustrated: Avro Vulcan Part 1, Big Bird Publications 2007 (p.119)
- ↑ Chris Chant, Air War in the Falklands 1982, Osprey Publishing Limited 2001 (p.92)
- ↑ Jones V-Bombers 2007, pp. 158–159.
- ↑ 75.0 75.1 Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, p. 67.
- ↑ Jackson Wings of Fame 1996, pp. 67, 78.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p. 87.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 Jones V-Bombers 2007, p. 159.
- ↑ Brookes 2011, p. 70.
- ↑ Bulman 2001, p. 90.
- ↑ Polmar and Bell 2004, p. 261.
- ↑ "Defence." Archived 13 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 14 April 1979, p. 1136.
- ↑ Frawley 2002, p. 44.
- ↑ Halpenny 2006, p. 244.
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 Halpenny 2006, p. 243.
- ↑ Darling 2007, p. 124.
- ↑ Jackson 1990, pp. 409–411.
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 Jackson 1990, p. 411.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, p. 44.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, p. 50.
- ↑ Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 15.
- ↑ Austin 2009, pp. 111–113.
- ↑ Austin 2009, p. 113.
- ↑ Baxter 1989, pp. 60, 64.
- ↑ Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration at line 2123: attempt to index field '?' (a nil value).
- ↑ Pilot's Notes AP 4505-C PN
- ↑ Aircrew Manual AP 101B-1902-15
- ↑ 98.0 98.1 98.2 Blackman 2007, p. 213.
Bibliography
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- {{cite book | last = Jackson | first = Robert | title = V-Force Britain's Airborne Nuclear Deterrent | publisher = Ian Allan Publishing | location = Shepperton, UK | year = 1986 |}
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Further reading
- Arnold, Lorna. Britain and the H-Bomb. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK, 2001. ISBN 0-333-94742-8.
- Chesnau, Roger and Ray Rimell. Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 (Aeroguide 29). Ad Hoc Publications, Ringshall, Suffolk, UK, 2003. ISBN 0-946958-39-4.
- Dodds, Colin. "Flying the Tin Triangle." Aeroplane, Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue 408, April 2007.
- Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Crowood Press, Wiltshire, UK, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.
- McLelland, Tim. The Avro Vulcan: A Complete History. Crécy Publishing Limited, Manchester, UK, 2007. ISBN 978-0-85979-127-4.
External links
- Avro Vulcan Bomber Tribute Page Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Vulcan to the Sky
- Vulcans in Camera
- Vulcan history
- Vulcan Restoration Trust Archived 18 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Video showing Roland Falk performing a Vulcan roll at Farnborough in 1955 Archived 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- History of Vulcan Test Pilot Roly Falk
- Building the Vulcan Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine – a 1957 article from Flight
- The Vulcan Story Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine – article published in Flight in 1958
- The Virtues of the Avro Vulcan Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine – a 1954 advertisement for the Vulcan by AVRO in Flight magazine
- Autobiography of Bill Wood, a Vulcan test pilot Archived 28 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine
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