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Vickers Type 710

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Adapted from the English Wikipedia article Vickers Type 710, available under CC BY-SA 4.0Updated 29 November 202594 sources
Vickers-Armstrongs
IndustryAerospace, Defence
Founded1828 (as Vickers)
Headquarters
Weybridge, Surrey
,
United Kingdom
ProductsAircraft, including the Vickers Valiant bomber

Vickers Valiant

The Vickers Valiant represented a British jet-powered bomber engineered for high-altitude operations, specifically designed to deliver nuclear payloads. During the 1950s and 1960s, it formed a crucial component of the Royal Air Force's strategic deterrent known as the "V bomber" force. Developed by Vickers-Armstrongs in response to the Specification B.35/46 issued by the Air Ministry, the aircraft was intended to fulfill the requirement for a nuclear-capable jet bomber. The Valiant was the earliest of the V bombers to enter service, preceding the Handley Page Victor and the Avro Vulcan. Notably, it remains the sole V bomber to have conducted live nuclear weapon drops during testing.

In 1956, Valiants based in Malta participated in conventional bombing sorties over Egypt as part of Operation Musketeer, during the Suez Crisis. From that year until early 1966, the principal role of the Valiant fleet was maintaining nuclear deterrence amidst tensions between NATO and Warsaw Pact nations. Additionally, certain squadrons operated in capacities such as aerial refueling, reconnaissance missions, and electronic warfare.

By 1962, due to advancements in Soviet surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems, the entire V-force—including the Valiant—transitioned from high-altitude flight profiles to low-level operations to reduce vulnerability to SAM attacks. In 1964, inspections revealed fatigue damage and crystalline corrosion within wing rear spar attachment forgings on Valiants. The alloy used in these components, a zinc-magnesium based material known as DTD 683 developed during World War II for high-strength applications, proved susceptible to cracking and fatigue failure when subjected to extended use beyond its originally intended short service life. While repairs began in late 1964, a governmental change led Defence Minister Denis Healey to decide on retiring the Valiant early in 1965. In contrast, the Victor and Vulcan bombers continued operational service into the 1980s.

Background and origins

In November 1944, the Joint Technical Warfare Committee, alongside another committee led by Sir Henry Tizard, evaluated the prospective advancements in "weapons of war." The Tizard Report, released on 3 July 1945, outlined specific policy guidance for the Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command. Following the conclusion of the Second World War, the strategy of deploying heavy four-engine bombers for large-scale raids persisted into the early postwar years. The Avro Lincoln, an improved variant of the Avro Lancaster, became the RAF’s primary bomber during this period. In 1946, the Air Staff introduced Operational Requirements OR229 and OR230, targeting the development of turbojet-powered heavy bombers capable of delivering nuclear weapons at high altitude and speed without defensive armaments. These bombers were intended to serve as a deterrent against adversaries and, if deterrence failed, to execute nuclear strikes. Concurrently, Britain embarked on developing its own atomic weapons program.

In January 1947, the British Air Ministry issued Specification B.35/46 for a cutting-edge jet bomber designed to carry nuclear payloads and operate near the speed of sound at altitudes around 50,000 ft (15,000 m). Three companies—A.V. Roe, Handley-Page, and Vickers-Armstrongs—submitted advanced proposals meeting these rigorous standards. Although Short Brothers presented a design by Geoffrey T. R. Hill that was deemed overly ambitious, their alternative submission for a separate requirement, B.14/46, was accepted by the Air Staff as a contingency should difficulties arise with B.35/46. Aviation historians Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist characterized Specification B.14/46 as calling for "little more than a traditional aircraft fitted with jet engines." Short's conservative design under this specification evolved into the S.A.4 Sperrin. Two prototypes were built, with the first flying in 1951; however, the Sperrin eventually served solely for research and development purposes.

Emerging from World War II as a leading force in aeronautical manufacturing and innovation, Vickers operated a confidential development division akin to a Skunk Works, based in Weybridge, Surrey. This secretive unit undertook several classified wartime projects and spearheaded early work on what would become the Valiant, including assembling its first two prototypes. Initially, Vickers proposed a six-engine jet bomber design to fulfill Specification B.35/46 but revised this concept to a four-engine layout in 1948 following advancements in jet engine technology. Compared to rival designs, Vickers’ proposal was relatively straightforward and less aerodynamically complex.

Both Handley-Page and Avro developed sophisticated designs for the bomber competition—the Victor and the Vulcan, respectively. To mitigate risk in case one design failed, the Air Staff awarded contracts to all three manufacturers. These aircraft collectively became known as the V bombers or V-class bombers, each named with words beginning with "V." Initially, Vickers’ design was dismissed as less advanced than those of Victor and Vulcan; however, Vickers’ chief designer George Edwards actively advocated to the Air Ministry by emphasizing that his design could be delivered much sooner than competitors’. He pledged that a prototype would fly before the end of 1951, production models would be airborne before late 1953, and serial production would start early in 1955. Securing this contract was vital for Vickers’ future in aircraft manufacturing. Edwards was highly confident that their Weybridge team could meet these commitments and resisted pressures to alter performance specifications or equipment requirements that might jeopardize delivery timelines.

Although pursuing three distinct aircraft models from a single Operational Requirement (OR) was expensive, geopolitical events such as the Berlin Blockade heightened urgency to establish an effective deterrent against potential Soviet aggression in Western Europe.

In April 1948, Specification B.9/48 was issued by the Air Staff based on Vickers’ Type 660 design; shortly thereafter, on 16 April 1948, Vickers received an official 'Instruction to Proceed.'

By February 1949, two prototypes of the Vickers 660 series had been ordered: one equipped with four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon turbojet engines and another powered by four Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire engines, designated as Type 667.

Prototypes

Initial prototype displayed at the Farnborough Airshow, 1951

The inaugural prototype, bearing the serial number WB210, completed its first flight on 18 May 1951,[1] meeting the timeline promised by George Edwards—just 27 months after the contract was awarded. This achievement preceded the competing Short Sperrin by several months; unlike the Valiant's swept wings, the Sperrin featured straight wings and was ultimately not commissioned. The pilot for this maiden flight was Captain Joseph "Mutt" Summers, renowned as the original test pilot for the Supermarine Spitfire, eager to add another pioneering milestone before retirement. His co-pilot was Gabe "Jock" Bryce, who later took over as Vickers' chief test pilot following Summers' departure.[2][3][4] The following month, the Vickers Type 660 received its official designation as "Valiant," reviving a name previously assigned to the Vickers Type 131 biplane from 1931.[N 1] The title "Valiant" was selected through an internal survey among Vickers employees.[5]

On 11 January 1952, during noise measurement tests related to the V.1000 project—including engine shutdowns and restarts,[6] the first prototype was lost after a fire erupted in the starboard wing. Most crew members escaped safely; however, the co-pilot suffered fatal injuries after colliding with the tail upon ejection.[7][8]

Following modifications to its fuel system, the second prototype WB215 undertook its first flight on 11 April 1952.[9] It was equipped with more powerful RA.7 Avon engines delivering approximately 7,500 pounds-force (33 kN) thrust each instead of the initially planned Sapphires. Additionally, it featured redesigned, more rounded air intakes replacing the narrow slot-type intakes of its predecessor to adequately supply air to the enhanced engines. The brief interval before this second prototype’s availability ensured that development progress remained unaffected despite the loss of the first.[10][11][12]

The Valiant B2

Among the trio of prototypes was a B.2 variant.[13] Designed as a Pathfinder aircraft, it operated at low altitudes to designate targets for the main bomber fleet. To withstand increased turbulence encountered at these lower levels, the B.2 incorporated structural reinforcements throughout its airframe. Notably, wing cut-outs previously accommodating main wheel retraction were eliminated to create an uninterrupted torsion box structure within the wing, simultaneously expanding internal fuel capacity. Instead of retracting into these cut-outs, the main landing gear—featuring four wheels compared to two on the B.1—folded rearward into sizable fairings positioned at the wing's trailing edge.[14] The B.2's fuselage was extended to 112 ft 9 in (34.37 m), longer than the B.1's length of 108 ft 3 in (32.99 m), providing additional space for avionics equipment.[15]

The prototype B.2 (serial number WJ954) completed its initial flight on 4 September 1953.[16] Painted in a glossy black finish for night operations, it earned the nickname "Black Bomber." Its low-level performance surpassed that of both the B.1 and any other V-bomber of its time,[17] achieving clearance for speeds up to 580 mph (930 km/h) at low altitude and reaching test velocities as high as 640 mph (1,030 km/h)—significantly faster than the B.1's sea-level limit of approximately 414 mph (665 km/h). The Air Ministry placed orders for seventeen production B.2 units powered by Rolls-Royce Conway turbofan engines; however, despite these impressive low-altitude capabilities, development ceased since the World War II-era "Pathfinder concept" was deemed outdated in nuclear warfare strategy.[18] The B.2 prototype subsequently served in various testing roles over several years—including trials of rocket-assisted take-offs employing two Super-Sprite motors to aid Valiant B.1 operations at hot or high-altitude airfields—and conducted extensive taxi tests investigating brake judder issues that led to landing gear fatigue failures before being scrapped in 1958.[19][20][21][22]

Production

Valiant B(PR)K.1 WZ393 of 90 Squadron in original all-metal finish displaying at Blackpool Squires Gate airport in 1957

In April 1951, the Ministry of Supply placed an initial order for 25 Valiant B.1 (Bomber Mark 1) aircraft on behalf of the RAF. This early procurement was crucial for accelerating production timelines. Due to shortages of steel and other essential materials during the establishment of the assembly line at Brooklands, many of the production jigs for the Valiant were constructed from concrete rather than metal. The first five units completed were built to pre-production standards, with WP199 being the inaugural example. The first flight of a production-standard Valiant occurred on 21 December 1953, meeting the schedule commitments made by Edwards.

The RAF received its first production Valiant on 8 February 1955, marking the official entry of Britain's "V-bomber" force into operational service—a designation coined in October 1952. The Victor and Vulcan bombers soon joined the Valiant, forming a triad of nuclear-capable strategic bombers within the RAF. By September 1957, the final Valiant had been delivered, with all aircraft completed punctually and under budget.

A total of 108 Valiants were produced, including a single B.2 prototype. Besides serving as a key component of Britain's nuclear deterrent, the Valiant was also deployed for conventional bombing missions using high explosive ordnance. Subsequent variants included a strategic reconnaissance model as well as a versatile version capable of conventional bombing, aerial reconnaissance, and air-to-air refuelling operations. Eighteen Squadron operated six Valiants equipped with electronic countermeasure systems. Aircraft from 90 and 214 Squadrons were adapted for air refuelling by fitting a Hose Drum Unit (HDU) within the bomb bay, utilizing existing suspension points originally intended for bombs. This configuration required opening the bomb bay doors during refuelling to deploy the hose—unlike later tanker designs where the HDU was integrated flush with the fuselage underside. Additionally, several Valiants served in experimental roles, including acting as flying testbeds during trials of the Blue Steel nuclear-armed standoff missile, which was subsequently incorporated into the armament of other V-bombers.

In contrast to the Vulcan and Victor, no advanced Mark 2 version of the Valiant was developed. In 1962, operational tactics shifted to low-level flight profiles to evade enemy surface-to-air missile defenses. However, by 1964, structural fatigue caused by increased turbulence at low altitude was identified, leading to an early retirement of the type. Aviation historian Vic Flintham noted the irony that Vickers had designed a Type 673 B Mk 2 variant optimized for fast low-level pathfinding missions, but this proposal failed to gain Air Ministry approval. The Valiant represented Vickers' final purpose-built military aircraft before transitioning to civil aviation projects such as the Vanguard turboprop introduced in 1959 and the VC10 jet airliner launched in 1962, both of which also served in RAF military transport and tanker roles.

Design

Forward perspective of the preserved Vickers Valiant XD818 at the Royal Air Force Museum Midlands

The Valiant’s design drew upon established aeronautical principles of its era, avoiding experimental aerodynamic features that would have necessitated validation through scaled prototypes or extensive R&D. Consequently, George Edwards characterized the Valiant as an "unexciting" aircraft.

Featuring a shoulder-mounted wing, the Valiant was powered by four Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 turbojet engines, each delivering approximately 6,500 pounds-force (29 kN) of thrust. These engines were arranged in pairs within fireproof compartments embedded in the wing roots.[23] The overall appearance of the aircraft was sleek, with swept-wing aerodynamics contributing to its streamlined profile.[24] The wing’s root chord had a thickness-to-chord ratio of 12%, enabling the Avon engines to be housed within the wing structure rather than in external pods as seen on contemporaries like the Boeing B-47.[25] This "buried engine" configuration enhanced aerodynamic efficiency and reflected British design conventions of the time. However, it complicated maintenance access, increased the potential for damage to adjacent engines in case of an uncontained failure, and necessitated a more complex main spar design routed around the engines.[26]

The wing incorporated a "compound sweep" layout developed by Vickers aerodynamicist Elfyn Richards.[27] Richards identified the need for increased sweep on the inner wing sections—a concept he later patented under "Improvements in Aeroplane Wing Formation," aiming to delay shockwave formation uniformly across the wing span.[28] Specifically, the inner third of the wing was swept back at 37°, while the outer two-thirds had a 21° sweep.[29][30] This design choice was influenced by a reduction in thickness-to-chord ratio towards the wingtips.[27] The relatively gentle sweep near control surfaces limited operational speeds to Mach 0.84, with a typical cruise speed around Mach 0.75 at altitudes up to 55,000 feet (17,000 m) when lightly loaded.[31][32] The aircraft did not require a drogue parachute even when operating from runways as short as 6,000 feet (1,800 m).[17]

Positioned high on the fuselage, the wing’s internal arrangement—housing engines and main landing gear—restricted fuel storage capacity.[23] The trailing edge featured two-section ailerons equipped with trim tabs, while double-slotted flaps were located inboard.[33] Flaps and landing gear deployment were driven by direct electric motors. Steering and braking systems employed electric motors powering hydraulic pumps rather than mechanical linkages, representing the only hydraulically actuated components.[34]

Close-up of wing root and air intakes

Production variants utilized four Avon 201 turbojets generating 9,500 pounds-force (42 kN) thrust each. These engines supplied bleed air for pressurization, ice protection, and environmental control systems. Additionally, engine-driven DC generators provided electrical power.[34] To prevent ice accumulation and potential damage from ice shedding, Napier Spraymat electric heaters were installed within engine intakes. Initial prototypes featured long rectangular intake slots; however, production models adopted oval or “spectacle” shaped inlets to accommodate increased airflow demands of higher-thrust engines.[25] Exhaust gases exited through fairings positioned above the wing trailing edges.[25]

To achieve necessary takeoff performance from short tropical dispersal airfields,[35] jettisonable rocket-assisted takeoff (RATO) booster packs were developed for trial use on the Valiant.[18] These trials involved two underwing de Havilland Sprite boosters but became obsolete with the introduction of more powerful Avon engine variants. Moreover, reliance on booster rockets posed risks due to possible asymmetric thrust if one failed during takeoff.[22] Some Valiants incorporated water injection systems that enhanced takeoff thrust by approximately 1,000 pounds-force (4.4 kN) per engine.[36]

Crew accommodations were situated within a pressurized compartment at the forward fuselage, comprising a pilot, co-pilot, two navigators, and an air signaller—later redesignated as an air electronics officer (AEO).[37] Saunders-Roe subcontracted manufacture of this pressurized section. The pilot and co-pilot occupied side-by-side seats on an upper level, while three other crew members were seated lower down facing aft.[38] The crew complement was reduced to five following elimination of defensive gun turrets and gunners—an operational concept validated by the World War II-era De Havilland Mosquito bomber.[30][N 2] Pilots used Martin-Baker Mk.3 ejection seats; however, rear crew had to exit through an oval main door on the port fuselage side—a method considered unreliable for safe escape.[39][23]

Side entry door on forward fuselage bearing pilot Kenneth Hubbard’s crew names

Behind the pressurized crew compartment and ahead of the wing lay space housing avionics and environmental control equipment—often referred to as the “organ loft.”[23] The landing gear comprised twin-wheel nose gear and tandem-wheel main gear assemblies retracting outward into recesses beneath the wings. Each main gear featured multi-pad anti-skid disc brakes and telescopically linked wheels operated by a single motor for retraction into wing wells.[23] Most aircraft systems—including flaps and undercarriage—were electrically powered.[40] Braking and steering mechanisms utilized electric motors driving hydraulic pumps for actuation.[41][42] The lower nose housed an H2S radar scanner behind a fiberglass radome; beneath the cockpit floor was a visual bomb sight. Access to avionics compartments was via an entry at the rear fuselage base leading to an internal catwalk above part of the bomb bay.[23][43]

Electrical power was supplied by four engine-driven DC generators producing 112 volts for high-demand systems. A separate 28-volt DC network powered actuators controlling these higher voltage functions. Backup power came from batteries rated at 24 volts and 96 volts. Additionally, a 115-volt AC supply supported radar equipment and actuators managing flight controls, flaps, air brakes, and landing gear.[41][44][42] During design development it was determined that maximizing electrical actuation would reduce overall weight compared to hydraulic equivalents consisting of pumps, tubing, fluid reservoirs, and actuators.[34]

The flight control system—covering ailerons, elevators, and rudder—employed dual-channel powered controls with full manual override capability; pilots trained extensively for manual flight in case of total electrical failure during missions.[41] Manual operation demanded significant physical effort.[42] Artificial feel devices for pilot controls derived pressure from ram-air intakes to simulate aerodynamic feedback.[34]

The aircraft featured Smith Aerospace autopilot and instrument landing system (ILS), supplemented by navigational aids such as Marconi-built Green Satin Doppler radar, Gee radio navigation system, Automatic Direction Finder (ADF), VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), and radar altimeters.[17] Provisions existed for additional sensors like side-looking airborne radar.

Landing gear assembly and wing

Structurally, the center fuselage incorporated a main backbone beam supporting two widely spaced wing spars and five fuel cells located in its upper section. The bomb bay occupied space beneath this area.[23][45] The rear fuselage utilized a lighter semi-monocoque construction; electro-hydraulic power units produced by Boulton-Paul operated control surfaces including ailerons, elevators, and rudder within this section.[34] Unlike swept tailplanes common at that time, the tail assembly tapered rather than swept back,[23] with its horizontal stabilizer mounted high on the vertical fin to avoid exhaust flow interference.[27] An ARI 5800 Orange Putter tail warning radar was installed in the tailcone.[18]

Key structural elements such as spars and beams were fabricated from DTD683—a zinc/magnesium/copper aluminum alloy developed in Britain.[46][47] The aircraft followed a Safe-Life design philosophy;[48] however, DTD683 was later identified as unstable under stress near design limits and prone to catastrophic failure according to research published in the Journal of the Institute of Metals in the late 1950s.[49] This revelation led to criticism of both material choice and Safe-Life methodology; notably dismissed by a Lockheed engineer during a Royal Aeronautical Society presentation in 1956 due to inadequate safety assurances against sudden failure.[50]

The Valiant B.1 could accommodate either a single nuclear weapon weighing up to 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) or up to twenty-one conventional bombs each weighing approximately 1,000 lb (450 kg) within its bomb bay. It was engineered for early fission nuclear devices as well as larger thermonuclear hydrogen bombs.[23] A clean configuration without external tanks enabled rapid climbs directly to 50,000 feet (15,000 m) post-takeoff unless burdened with heavy ordnance.

For reconnaissance missions, camera equipment could be installed inside bomb bay crates along with fuselage-mounted cameras; larger auxiliary fuel tanks replaced standard ones to extend endurance.[51] External fuel tanks holding approximately 1,650 imperial gallons (7,500 L; 1,980 US gal) each were mounted under wings for extended range; an additional auxiliary tank could be fitted forward in bomb bay space. External tanks were standard on aerial refueling variants.[51] A fixed refueling probe was affixed to the nose for receiving fuel mid-flight; this connected via piping routed externally along canopy edges to avoid compromising cabin pressurization integrity.[52]

Nuclear deterrent

Side perspective of a Yellow Sun nuclear bomb mounted beneath the wing of Vickers Valiant XD818, displayed at the RAF Cosford museum

The Valiant was first introduced into service with 138 Squadron, which was established at RAF Gaydon on 1 January 1955. Shortly thereafter, on 21 February 1955, the 232 Operational Conversion Unit was formed at Gaydon to facilitate crew training on the new bomber.[53] As the Valiant represented a new generation of RAF bombers, aircrew selected for this type were drawn from highly experienced personnel. Lead pilots were required to have accumulated at least 1,750 flying hours as aircraft captains, including a full tour operating the Canberra, while co-pilots needed a minimum of 700 hours in command. The remaining three crew members were appointed based on recommendations from their commanding officers.[54] Initially, the Valiant was assigned to strategic nuclear bombing missions, alongside the Vulcan and Victor B.1 models when those entered service. At its operational zenith, the Valiant equipped ten RAF squadrons.[55][56]

Gunston and Gilchrist noted that the Valiant demonstrated "exceptional performance" during the annual bombing competition organized by the American Strategic Air Command (SAC).[52] This piqued US interest, leading to visits by USAF generals Vandenberg, Johnson, and LeMay to Vickers. Test pilot Brian Trubshaw suggested that George Edwards faced some pressure to produce a licensed version of the Boeing B-47. The visit’s sole tangible outcome was LeMay’s request that the side-by-side pilot seating arrangement of the Valiant be adopted for the B-52 bomber, replacing the tandem seating used in both the B-47 and early B-52 prototypes.[57]

On 11 October 1956, Valiant B.1 WZ366 of No. 49 Squadron executed the first British live atomic bomb drop during the Buffalo R3/Kite test

On 11 October 1956, a Valiant B.1 (WZ366) from No. 49 Squadron, piloted by Edwin Flavell, became the first British aircraft to release an atomic bomb when it conducted a test drop of a downgraded Blue Danube device over Maralinga, South Australia.[58] This event was part of the Operation Buffalo nuclear testing series in that region. To shield the crew from the intense nuclear flash, windscreen blinds were installed prior to the test. After completing its mission and landing, WZ366 underwent inspection for any damage or contamination from radioactive fallout.[59]

On 15 May 1957, during Operation Grapple, a Valiant B(K).1 (XD818) flown by Kenneth Hubbard dropped Britain's inaugural hydrogen bomb—the Short Granite—over the Pacific Ocean.[60] No. 49 Squadron was chosen for this live weapon deployment and operated specially modified Valiants designed to meet scientific testing parameters and incorporate protective measures against heat and radiation exposure.[61] Although a thermonuclear reaction was achieved, the yield measured fell short of one-third of anticipated maximum output.

On 8 November 1957, during Grapple X testing, a British hydrogen bomb successfully detonated at its intended yield.[62] The Grapple test series extended into early 1958; in April that year, Grapple Y produced an explosion with ten times the power of the initial Short Granite device.[63] Testing concluded in November 1958 when UK authorities decided to cease all further air-delivered nuclear experiments.[52]

Initially designed for high-altitude bombing runs, tactics shifted following the downing of Gary Powers’ Lockheed U-2 by an early Soviet SA-2 Guideline missile in 1960. This SAM threat prompted bomber units to train for low-level penetration missions aimed at evading radar detection over hostile territories. The aircraft’s anti-flash white paint scheme was replaced with grey-green camouflage featuring standard markings.[64] By 1963, four squadrons equipped with Valiants—49, 148, 207, and 214—were assigned to SACEUR with responsibilities focused on low-level tactical bombing.[52] At this stage in their service life, operational flying rates for Valiants had noticeably declined.[52]

Conventional warfare

Camouflaged Valiant at Filton, England. Circa mid-1960s

During peacetime, training exercises involved releasing small practice bombs on instrumented bombing ranges. Additionally, a predicted bombing technique was employed, using radio signals to indicate the bomb's release point over non-range areas. Ground radar units then calculated the bombing error and relayed this information either to the aircrew during the mission or to a command center for further evaluation. The Valiant's Navigational and Bombing System (NBS), combined with the expertise of highly skilled crews—often experienced veterans decorated for previous wartime service—enabled bombing precision that surpassed that of aircraft from World War II. Gunston and Gilchrist noted that Valiant crews could deliver practice bombs from an altitude of 45,000 feet (14,000 m) within mere meters of their intended targets.[52]

The Valiant was the first of the V-bombers to engage in combat operations during October and November 1956, participating in the Anglo-French-Israeli Suez campaign. In Operation Musketeer, the British military intervention during the Suez Crisis, Valiants based at Luqa airfield in Malta conducted conventional bombing raids on Egyptian targets. Primary objectives included Egyptian military airbases, alongside communication centers such as radio stations and transportation nodes.[65] On the opening night, six Valiants were tasked with bombing Cairo West Air Base; however, this mission was aborted mid-flight due to concerns about nearby US personnel. Simultaneously, six other aircraft struck Almaza Air Base, while five more attacked Kibrit Air Base and Huckstep Barracks.[66][67]

Despite no opposition from Egyptian forces and zero losses among the Valiants, the effectiveness of these raids was deemed unsatisfactory. Although a total of 842 long tons (856 t) of bombs were dropped, only three out of seven targeted airfields sustained significant damage.[N 3] The Egyptian Air Force had already been largely neutralized through a broader coalition attack that included these missions.[68] This marked the final occasion RAF V-bombers conducted live combat sorties until Avro Vulcans bombed Port Stanley airfield during the Falklands War in 1982.[69]

Tanker operations

Valiant tanker aircraft were operated by No. 214 Squadron stationed at RAF Marham, becoming active in 1958, and by No. 90 Squadron based at Honington from 1959.[70] Both squadrons transitioned exclusively to tanker roles on 1 April 1962.[71] Tanker-configured aircraft featured a Hose Drum Unit (HDU or "HooDoo") installed within the bomb bay. This HDU was mounted on bomb rack points but could be removed to revert the aircraft back to bomber status if necessary;[72] however, transferring fuel required opening the bomb bay doors. The HDU was controlled via a panel located at the radar navigator’s station inside the cockpit.

Demonstration flights involving extended ranges were conducted with in-flight refuelling support provided by other Valiant tankers positioned strategically along flight paths. For instance, in 1960 a Valiant bomber completed a nonstop journey from Marham in the UK to Singapore, followed by a Vulcan accomplishing a nonstop UK-to-Australia flight in 1961.[70] These two tanker squadrons regularly undertook long-distance missions including nonstop flights from the UK to destinations such as Nairobi, RAF Gan, and Singapore.[73] Other aircraft refuelled by Valiants during this period included Victor and Vulcan bombers; Royal Air Force fighters like the English Electric Lightning; as well as Royal Navy fighters such as the de Havilland Sea Vixen and Supermarine Scimitar.[74]

Reconnaissance and Electronic Countermeasures Roles

Aircraft from No. 18 Squadron RAF stationed at RAF Finningley were adapted for the "radio countermeasures" (RCM) mission, a role later renamed as "electronic countermeasures" (ECM). These Valiants were equipped with American-made APT-16A and ALT-7 jamming transmitters, along with Airborne Cigar and Carpet jamming systems, APR-4 and APR-9 receivers designed for signal detection, and chaff release mechanisms. At least seven Valiants underwent conversion to fulfill the RCM function.

Meanwhile, Valiants assigned to No. 543 Squadron at RAF Wyton were modified to undertake photographic reconnaissance duties. A significant operation in 1965 saw these aircraft capture imagery covering approximately 400,000 square miles (1,000,000 km2) of Rhodesia over an eleven-week timeframe.

Structural Fatigue Issues and Decommissioning

In 1956, Vickers conducted a series of high-speed, low-altitude tests using WZ383 to evaluate the aircraft’s performance under such conditions. These trials prompted several modifications, including fitting a metal radome and debris deflectors on the two inner engines. After six flights, artificial feel forces on the ailerons and elevators were reduced by half. Pilots noted issues with cabin heating and moisture accumulation that required attention. The aircraft was also outfitted with instrumentation to record flight data, which Vickers utilized to estimate the aircraft's remaining safe operational lifespan under these flight profiles. Initially, a safe flying duration of 75 hours was advised, later revised to suggest the true limit might be under 200 hours. The annual flight hours logged by each Valiant became a matter of operational concern for the RAF.

Subsequently, the RAE performed similar testing that more accurately reflected real-world operational scenarios, including low-level flight and taxiing maneuvers. The findings published in 1958 provided valuable insight into which flight conditions contributed most significantly to structural damage, enabling improved predictions of the aircraft’s future service life.

In May 1957, Flight magazine reported an incident at Boscombe Down where the rear spar of a wing cracked following a rocket-assisted takeoff performed at an overloaded weight—necessitating such assistance. This aircraft was the second prototype WB 215 and had not yet received the production fix addressing the known rear spar weakness. After accumulating 489 flying hours, this airframe was dismantled for wing fatigue testing.

After extensive frontline deployment, in July 1964 a cracked spar was identified on one of three Valiants participating in Operation Pontifex (either WZ394 or WZ389). Subsequently, on 6 August, a failure occurred in the starboard wing rear spar at an altitude of 30,000 feet aboard WP217, an OCU aircraft from Gaydon piloted by Flight Lieutenant "Taffy" Foreman. Despite this damage, the aircraft managed to return safely to base; however, flap deployment was compromised because damage caused flap rollers to dislodge from their guides on that side. Further inspection revealed buckling of fuselage skin beneath the starboard inner wing panel with rivet failure; additionally, engine doors exhibited cracking with pulled rivets and skin deformation atop the mainplane between engines. Both affected airframes were photographic reconnaissance variants.

Fleet-wide examinations revealed wing spars exhibited fatigue levels ranging between 35% and 75% of their estimated safe fatigue life—likely exacerbated by exposure to low-level turbulence. Following these inspections, aircraft were categorized into three groups: Category A permitted continued flying operations; Category B allowed flights only to repair facilities; Category C required repairs prior to further flight. Tanker squadrons had a higher proportion of Category A status due to their predominantly high-altitude mission profiles. This situation prompted a reevaluation of fatigue life assessment methodologies. By the time withdrawal commenced, approximately fifty Valiants remained active while others accumulated at various RAF Maintenance Units classified as "Non effective Aircraft."

At first, retirement was not considered necessary for most affected planes. Repairs were actively undertaken at bases such as Marham using combined efforts from Vickers personnel and RAF technicians. However, in January 1965, under Defence Secretary Denis Healey during the Wilson administration, it was determined that repair costs could not be justified given the limited remaining operational lifespan of the fleet. Consequently, all Valiants were permanently grounded as of 26 January 1965. The Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) duty supporting SACEUR was maintained until final grounding occurred. When questioned about scrapping in the House of Commons, Healey clarified that this decision was unrelated to low-level flying activities and noted that "the last Government decided to continue operating the Valiant force for four years beyond its planned fatigue life."

Aviation historian Barry Jones remarked: "One must ask why Handley Page’s Hastings underwent extensive refurbishment involving complete dismantling and replacement of DTD683 components with new alloy sections over two years prior to the Valiant’s retirement—yet similar treatment was not applied to the Valiant itself? Perhaps answers will emerge someday—but I doubt it." A Flight magazine article covering the scrapping emphasized that "fatigue affected all Valiants... not just those exposed to extensive low-level flying."

The final tanker sortie took place on 9 December 1964 when XD812 from 214 Squadron refuelled Lightning fighters over the North Sea before being recalled prematurely to Marham prior to completing its exercise. On that same day, XD818 conducted its last bombing mission; notably, this aircraft had previously delivered nuclear weapons during Operation Grapple.

Variants

A total of 107 Valiants were manufactured, including the initial three prototypes.[75][76] The main variants are as follows:

  • Valiant B.1: This bomber series consisted of 37 units, incorporating five pre-production models known as Type 600, Type 667, and Type 674, all powered by Avon RA.14 engines delivering 9,500 pounds-force (42 kN) thrust each, matching the earlier Avon 201. Additionally, there were 34 full-production Type 706 aircraft equipped with Avon RA.28, 204, or 205 engines, each generating 10,500 pounds-force (47 kN) thrust. These later models featured extended tailpipes and utilized water-methanol injection to enhance takeoff thrust.[77]
  • Type 710 Valiant B(PR).1: Eleven aircraft configured for bomber and photo-reconnaissance roles. From the outset, Edwards and his team explored the Valiant’s suitability for photographic reconnaissance. This variant could be fitted with a removable module in the bomb bay capable of carrying up to eight narrow-angle/high-resolution cameras alongside four survey cameras.[77]
  • Type 733 Valiant B(PR)K.1: Fourteen aircraft designed to perform bombing, photo-reconnaissance, and tanker operations.[77]
  • Type 758 Valiant B(K).1: Forty-four bombers adapted for tanker duties. Both tanker configurations incorporated a detachable refueling system within the bomb bay that included fuel tanks and a hose-and-drogue aerial refueling mechanism. An additional order for sixteen of these tankers was placed but later cancelled.[77]
  • Valiant B.2: A single prototype was developed.[77]
  • Vickers also investigated a transport adaptation of the Valiant featuring a low-mounted wing with an increased wingspan from 114 feet 4 inches (34.85 m) to 140 feet (43 m), an elongated fuselage measuring 146 feet (45 m), and upgraded engines. Work began on this prototype, designated Type 1000, in early 1953. It was intended to serve as the basis for a military transport version (Type 1002) and a civilian transport variant (Type 1004 or VC.7). However, the nearly completed Type 1000 prototype was ultimately cancelled.[77]

Production of the Valiant ceased in August 1957.[76] An order for seventeen B.2 models was also cancelled.[77]

Operators

Silhouette of the Valiant B.1
Template:UK
    • No. 7 Squadron – Reformed at Honington on 1 November 1956, relocated to Wittering on 26 July 1960, and disbanded on 30 September 1962.[55]
    • No. 18 Squadron – The C Flight of No.199 Squadron at Finningley was renumbered as No.18 Squadron on 17 December 1958; it was disbanded on 31 March 1963.[55]
    • No. 49 Squadron – Reformed at Wittering on 1 May 1956, transferred to Marham on 26 June 1961, and disbanded on 1 May 1965.[55]
    • No. 90 Squadron – Reformed at Honington on New Year’s Day in 1957; disbanded on 1 March 1965.[55]
    • No.138 Squadron – Reactivated at Gaydon on January 1, 1955; moved to Wittering on July 6 that year; disbanded April 1, 1962.[55]
    • No.148 Squadron – Reformed at Marham on July 1,1956; disbanded May first,1965.[55]
    • No.199 Squadron – C Flight received Valiants at Honington on May29,1957 for ECM training duties replacing Avro Lincoln aircraft; remainder of squadron operated Canberra bombers; disbanded December1958 when C Flight became No.18 Squadron.[55][78]
    • No.207 Squadron – Reformed at Marham April first,1956; disbanded May first,1965.[55]
    • No.214 Squadron – Reactivated at Marham January21,1956; disbanded March first,1965.[55]
    • No.543 Squadron – Reformed at Gaydon April first,1955 for strategic reconnaissance role; moved to Wyton November18 same year; replaced grounded Valiants with Victor Mk1s in1965.[55][79]
    • No.232 Operational Conversion Unit RAF – Established at Gaydon February21,1955 to train crews for the Valiant; Victor training added in1957; B flight equipped with Valiants was disbanded February1965.[55]
    • No.1321 (Valiant/Blue Danube Trials) Flight[80]

Accidents and incidents

  • On 12 January 1952, the initial Valiant prototype WB210 was lost near Bransgore due to an in-flight fire.[81]
  • On 29 July 1955, Valiant B1 WP222 from No. 138 Squadron crashed during takeoff at RAF Wittering after experiencing an aileron failure, resulting in the deaths of all four crew members.[82][83]
  • On 11 May 1956, Valiant B1 WP202 operated by the Royal Aircraft Establishment lost control and crashed while attempting to land at Southwick Recreation Ground near Hove, Sussex.[82]
  • On 13 September 1957, Valiant B(PR)K1 WZ398 from No. 543 Squadron caught fire inside a hangar at RAF Wyton and was subsequently not repaired.[84]
  • On 11 September 1959, Valiant BK1 XD869 belonging to No. 214 Squadron collided with the ground following a night takeoff at RAF Marham.[85]
  • On 12 August 1960, Valiant BK1 XD864 of No. 7 Squadron experienced a nosewheel retraction failure during takeoff from RAF Wittering. While addressing the issue, the aircraft stalled and crashed at the disused RAF Spanhoe airfield.[85]
  • On 11 July 1961, Valiant B1 WP205 from the Aircraft and Armament Experimental Establishment overran the runway and struck a control caravan at Boscombe Down.[82]
  • On 3 November 1961, Valiant B(PR)K1 WZ399 of No. 543 Squadron aborted takeoff at Offutt AFB, Nebraska, United States; after overrunning the runway onto nearby railway tracks, it caught fire.[84]
  • On 14 March 1961, Valiant B.1 WP200 stationed at RRFU Pershore failed to complete its takeoff and was written off.[82][86]
  • On 6 May 1964, Valiant B1 WZ363 from No. 148 Squadron, though operated by personnel from No. 207 Squadron on loan, crashed into the ground during a night flight near Market Rasen, Lincolnshire.[84]
  • On 23 May 1964, Valiant B(PR)K1 WZ396 of No. 543 Squadron experienced landing gear issues and touched down on foam at RAF Manston, after which it was not repaired.[84]

Surviving aircraft

Vickers Valiant B1 XD818, piloted by Kenneth Hubbard during Operation Grapple – displayed at the RAF Museum Cosford in 2006

Specifications (Valiant B.1)

Template:Aircraft specs

See also

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Notes

  1. ↑ While RAF bombers traditionally bore names of towns or cities such as Lancaster, Halifax, and Canberra, this new jet age introduced a fresh naming convention. The chosen name also followed a pattern of alliteration common in aircraft names.
  2. ↑ Although Vickers proposed installing twin 20 mm cannon in the tailcone, this idea did not progress beyond design stages.
  3. ↑ At that time, the Valiants had yet to be equipped with their operational Navigational and Bombing System (NBS) and relied on World War II-era bomb-aiming methods.

Citations

  1. ↑ Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 439.
  2. ↑ Turpin 2002, p. 72.
  3. ↑ Blackman and Wright 2015, p. 10.
  4. ↑ McLelland 2013, p. 68.
  5. ↑ Jones 2007, pp. 31, 33.
  6. ↑ Andrews 1965, p. 4.
  7. ↑ Flight 4 July 1958, p. 13.
  8. ↑ Blackman and Wright 2015, pp. 11–16.
  9. ↑ Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 440.
  10. ↑ Turpin 2002, p. 74.
  11. ↑ Jones 2007, p. 34.
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named black wright 17
  13. ↑ Jones 2007, p. 26.
  14. ↑ Gunston and Gilchrist 1993, pp. 77–78.
  15. ↑ Jones 2007, pp. 32, 36.
  16. ↑ Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 445.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 77
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Gunston and Gilchrist 1993, p. 78.
  19. ↑ Trubshaw and Edmondson 1998, p. 37.
  20. ↑ Jones 2007, pp. 36–37.
  21. ↑ Brookes 2012, pp. 83–84.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named black wright 20
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 75
  24. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Andrews Vickers p449
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Andrews Vickers p442
  26. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 73 74
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Barfield p158
  28. ↑ Patent Specification 631,785
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Aero Aug80 p398
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 74
  31. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Profile p16
  32. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named black wright 17 18
  33. ↑ Gunston and Gilchrist 1993, pp. 75–76.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 76
  35. ↑ Gunston 1973, p. 50.
  36. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named darling 41
  37. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named black wright 28
  38. ↑ Gunston and Gilchrist 1993, pp. 74–75.
  39. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Turpin p79-0
  40. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named darling 39
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Flight p19
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named black wright 18
  43. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 76 77
  44. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Turpin p78
  45. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Flight p18
  46. ↑ Flight December 1951
  47. ↑ Flight July 1953
  48. ↑ Brookes 2012
  49. ↑ JIM Vol.86
  50. ↑ Flight April 1956
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named black wright 19
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 52.5 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named bomber 79
  53. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named darling 40
  54. ↑ Jones 2007, pp. 79–82.
  55. ↑ 55.00 55.01 55.02 55.03 55.04 55.05 55.06 55.07 55.08 55.09 55.10 55.11 Brookes 2012, p. 92.
  56. ↑ Wynn, pp. 564-565.
  57. ↑ Brian Trubshaw Test Pilot, Brian Trubshaw and Sally Edmondson, Sutton Publishing Limited 1999, ISBN 0 7509 1838 1, p.35
  58. ↑ Mason 1994, p. 378.
  59. ↑ Blackman and Wright 2015, pp. 33–36.
  60. ↑ "Individual History Vickers Valiant B (K) Mk.I XD818/7894M Museum Accession Number 1994/1352/A" (PDF). Royal Air Force Museum. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  61. ↑ Hubbard and Simmons 2008, pp. 61, 68.
  62. ↑ Hubbard and Simmons 2008, p. 157.
  63. ↑ Hubbard and Simmons 2008, p. 167.
  64. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named flint 133
  65. ↑ Bowman 2016, p. 158
  66. ↑ Blackman and Wright 2015, p. 42.
  67. ↑ Darling 2012, p. 42.
  68. ↑ Bowman 2016, pp. 158, 161.
  69. ↑ McClelland, pp.175–178.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Hubbard and Simmons 2008, p. 26.
  71. ↑ Brookes 1982, p. 142
  72. ↑ Tanner 2006, pp. 113–114.
  73. ↑ Brookes 1982, pp. 141–142
  74. ↑ Wynn 1994, p. 168.
  75. ↑ Brookes 2012, p. 45.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Royal Air Force Museum - Vickers Valiant B1, accessed 19 May 2018
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 77.3 77.4 77.5 77.6 thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk - Vickers Valiant History, accessed 19 May 2018
  78. ↑ Halley1980,p203.
  79. ↑ Halley1980,p315.
  80. ↑ Brookes2012,p34–35.
  81. ↑ "Sole British Jet Atom Bomber Crashes." New York Times, 13 January 1952.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 Halley 2003, p. 95.
  83. ↑ "Valiant Crash Inquest Verdict." The Times, Issue 53289, August 1955, p. 11.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 84.3 Halley 2003, p. 128.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Halley 2001, p. 20.
  86. ↑ Morgan 1994, p. 32.
  87. ↑ "60th Anniversary of Valiant's First Flight." Royal Air Force Museum, 17 May 2011.
  88. ↑ "Powered Aircraft, Gliders & Aircraft Cockpit Sections." Archived 28 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Brooklands Museum, Retrieved: 19 August 2012.
  89. ↑ "Exhibits" Morayvia, Retrieved: 20 July 2020.
  90. ↑ "Valiant cockpit now part of the IWM." Imperial War Museum, 18 December 2022.
  91. ↑ "Our Aircraft." Archived 6 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Norfolk and Suffolk Aviation Museum, Retrieved: 19 August 2012.

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External links

Related profiles

VVickers Type 758VVickers Type 667VVickers Type 674VVickers Type 706
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