Vulcan K.2

Avro Vulcan

Company type	Strategic bomber
Industry	Aerospace, Defence
Predecessor	Avro 707 (test aircraft)
Founded	1952
Founder	A.V. Roe and Company (Avro)
Defunct	1984
Headquarters	United Kingdom , UK
Products	Jet-powered strategic bombers

Overview

The Avro Vulcan (renamed Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963) is a jet-powered, tailless, delta-wing strategic bomber that operated with the Royal Air Force (RAF) between 1956 and 1984. Developed by A.V. Roe and Company (Avro) in response to Specification B.35/46, the Vulcan was one of three V bomber types produced, regarded as the most technologically advanced and consequently the most challenging to develop. To validate the delta-wing concept, several smaller-scale test aircraft, known as Avro 707s, were constructed.

The initial Vulcan B.1 entered RAF service in 1956, followed by the enhanced Vulcan B.2 from 1960 onwards. The B.2 variant incorporated stronger engines, an expanded wing area, upgraded electrical systems, and electronic countermeasure capabilities; many units were modified to carry the Blue Steel missile. Serving as a key element of the V-force, the Vulcan formed the core of Britain's airborne nuclear deterrent throughout much of the Cold War. Although primarily equipped for nuclear strikes, it was also capable of conventional bombing missions, notably demonstrated during Operation Black Buck in the 1982 Falklands War between the UK and Argentina.

Initially lacking defensive armaments, the Vulcan relied on its ability to fly at high altitudes and speeds to avoid enemy interceptors. From approximately 1960 onwards, electronic countermeasures were installed on both the B.1 (designated B.1A) and B.2 models. In the mid-1960s, operational tactics shifted to low-level penetration profiles. During the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were converted for maritime radar reconnaissance roles and redesignated as B.2 (MRR). Towards the end of their service life, six aircraft were modified into K.2 tanker variants to support aerial refuelling missions.

Following retirement from RAF service, one B.2 example, XH558—dubbed The Spirit of Great Britain—was restored for flight demonstrations and airshows. Additionally, two other B.2s, XL426 and XM655, remain maintained in taxiable condition for ground displays and engine runs. XH558 completed its final flight in October 2015 but continues to be preserved in taxiable form. Another Vulcan, XM612, is exhibited at the Norwich Aviation Museum.

Origins

Silhouettes comparing an early Avro 698 concept and the cancelled Avro 710

The inception of the Vulcan, along with the other V bombers, is closely tied to Britain's initial atomic weapons program and its strategic nuclear deterrence policies. The British atomic bomb initiative commenced with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946, anticipating a government decision in January 1947 to authorize development of nuclear arms. This was despite the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act), which restricted sharing atomic information, even with wartime allies from the Manhattan Project. OR.1001 specified a weapon no longer than 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m), no wider than 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter, and weighing up to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg). It had to be deployable from altitudes between 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m).

In January 1947, the Ministry of Supply issued Specification B.35/46 to British aircraft manufacturers to fulfill Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for a "medium-range land-based bomber capable of delivering a single 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to a target up to 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) distant from any global base." The specification demanded a cruising speed near 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes ranging from 35,000 to 50,000 ft (11,000 to 15,000 m) and a maximum takeoff weight not exceeding 100,000 lb (45,000 kg). Alternatively, the aircraft could carry a conventional bomb load of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). A related requirement, OR.230, called for a "long-range bomber" with a radius of action of 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km) and a fully loaded weight limit of 200,000 lb (91,000 kg), but this was deemed too demanding. Six manufacturers responded with proposals to this specification, including Avro.

Avro began work on Specification B.35/46 immediately after receiving it, under the leadership of technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies. Their project was designated Avro 698. The design team quickly recognized that traditional aircraft configurations would not meet the requirements. Neither the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) nor U.S. sources provided valuable data on high-speed flight. Avro was aware of Alexander Lippisch's delta-wing fighter design and considered adopting this delta wing concept for their bomber. The team calculated that a conventional swept wing angled at 45° would result in doubling the aircraft’s weight beyond limits. Understanding that swept wings enhance longitudinal stability allowed them to eliminate the tail assembly (empennage) and its supporting fuselage segment, transforming the design into a swept-back flying wing featuring only a minimal forward fuselage and vertical stabilizers (fins) on each wingtip. This reduced weight estimates to just 50% above the target. By decreasing wingspan while preserving wing area through filling in space between wingtips, they arrived at the delta wing shape that satisfied specification demands. Although Alexander Lippisch is often credited as the delta wing pioneer, Chadwick’s team independently developed their design following their own engineering rationale. The initial concept featured four large turbojet engines arranged in two pairs stacked vertically inside the wings near the centerline; two bomb bays were positioned outboard of these engines.

Tragically, Chadwick died in August 1947 when the Avro Tudor#Avro Tudor II prototype crash crashed; he was succeeded by Sir William Farren. Later design changes included reducing wing thickness which prevented accommodating stacked engines and split bomb bays; consequently, engines were arranged side-by-side in pairs flanking a single bomb bay within an enlarged fuselage section. The twin fins on wingtips were replaced by a single vertical fin on the aircraft’s centerline. In November 1947, rival manufacturer Handley Page was awarded a prototype contract for its crescent-winged HP.80 design responding to B.35/46. Although Avro’s design was regarded as superior technically, contract approval was postponed pending verification of its capabilities. Authorization to build two Avro 698 prototypes came through in January 1948. As a backup against potential failure of both radical designs, Short Brothers received an order for a prototype SA.4 Sperrin under Specification B.14/46 with less stringent requirements; however, this aircraft was ultimately unnecessary. In April 1948, Vickers-Armstrongs also gained permission to proceed with their Type 660 design—the Vickers Valiant—which did not fully meet B.35/46 but followed conventional design principles and could enter service earlier.

Avro 707 and Avro 710

The prototype Vulcans (VX777 front, VX770 rear) accompanied by four Avro 707 aircraft at the Farnborough Air Show in September 1953: The Vulcan's expansive delta wing earned it the nickname "Tin Triangle".

Since Avro lacked prior flight data on delta wing configurations, the firm developed two smaller test planes derived from the 698 design: the one-third scale model 707 for evaluating low-speed flight characteristics, and the half-scale 710 intended for high-speed testing. Orders were placed for two units of each type. However, the 710 project was abandoned due to its lengthy development timeline; instead, a high-speed variant of the 707, designated 707A, was created. The initial 707, serial VX784, took to the skies in September 1949 but tragically crashed later that month, resulting in the death of Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE, chief test pilot at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment. The second low-speed model, VX790, incorporated the nose section from the incomplete 707A—which included an ejection seat—and was reclassified as 707B; it flew in September 1950 under the control of Avro’s test pilot Wing Commander Roland "Roly" Falk. The high-speed 707A, serial WD280, followed with its maiden flight in July 1951.

Although delays in the 707 program limited its influence on the fundamental design of the 698, the testing with both 707B and 707A models highlighted necessary adjustments such as lengthening the nosewheel strut to achieve an optimal ground angle of incidence at takeoff of 3.5°. These variants validated the delta wing concept and reinforced confidence in its aerodynamic planform. Additional aircraft built included a second 707A (WZ736) and a two-seat version designated 707C (WZ744), but neither contributed directly to further development of the 698.

Initial prototype VX770 and naming

Comparison showing different Vulcan wing configurations

More critical than the Avro 707 series in shaping the 698’s design were wind tunnel studies conducted at RAE Farnborough. These investigations prompted a wing redesign featuring a cranked and drooped leading edge combined with vortex generators to mitigate compressibility drag that would otherwise limit top speeds. This revised "phase 2" wing first appeared on Avro 707A WD480 but arrived too late to be incorporated into either of the two initial prototype 698s or into the first three B.1 production aircraft before their inaugural flights; these B.1s were subsequently retrofitted with this wing design.

The prototype 698 VX770, sporting its original pure delta wing and painted glossy white, performed its debut flight on 30 August 1952 with Roly Falk as sole pilot. Powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines delivering approximately 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust each—since its intended Bristol Olympus engines were unavailable—the aircraft was equipped solely with a pilot’s ejection seat and conventional control wheel. Fuel was stored in fuselage tanks only; temporary additional fuel capacity was provided via tanks installed in the bomb bay. In September of that year, VX770 was showcased at the SBAC Farnborough Air Show where Falk demonstrated an aggressive near-vertical bank maneuver.

Following its public debut at Farnborough, speculation arose regarding a suitable name for the Avro 698. Avro had advocated for "Ottawa," reflecting their ties to Avro Canada, consistent with RAF bomber naming traditions honoring inland British Commonwealth towns or industrial centers. The publication Flight proposed "Albion" after dismissing alternatives such as "Avenger," "Apollo," and "Assegai." Ultimately, influenced by preferences within RAF leadership for a V-series designation, the Air Council officially named the aircraft Vulcan, inspired by the Roman deity associated with fire and destruction.

In January 1953, VX770 was temporarily grounded to facilitate installation of wing fuel tanks along with upgraded Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire engines rated at approximately 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust plus other system enhancements; it resumed flight operations in July that year.

From 1957 onward, VX770 served as a flying test platform for the Rolls-Royce Conway bypass turbofan engine until it crashed during an aerial display at RAF Syerston in September 1958.

Second prototype VX777

The second prototype, designated VX777, took to the skies for the first time on 3 September 1953. Closer in design to the final production version, it was extended in length to house a longer nose landing gear strut, which increased the wing's angle of attack and thus reduced the takeoff distance. A bomb-aiming blister was installed beneath the cockpit for visual targeting, and it was powered by Bristol Olympus 100 engines delivering 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) of thrust. Following Falk's recommendation, the traditional control wheel was replaced with a fighter-style control stick. Similar to VX770, VX777 retained the original wing design featuring straight leading edges. At the 1953 Farnborough Air Show, VX777 flew in formation alongside the first prototype VX770 and four Avro 707 aircraft. In July 1954, during testing at Farnborough, VX777 suffered significant damage due to a hard landing. After repairs, it was upgraded with Olympus 101 engines producing 11,000 lbf (49 kN) thrust and resumed flight trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down.Template:Fix/category

Testing and type certification

During high-speed and high-altitude envelope exploration at A&AEE, VX777 exhibited mild buffeting and other adverse flight behaviors near its maximum Mach number, including a dangerous tendency to enter an uncontrollable dive known as Mach tuck. Such characteristics were deemed unsuitable for an unarmed bomber. The installation of the phase 2 wing eliminated the buffeting issue, while an automatic Mach trimmer was introduced to counteract the high-speed dive by applying up-elevator input as velocity approached critical levels. This corrective force exceeded that required to counteract the dive, meaning that as speed increased, pilots needed to push forward on the control column rather than pull back to maintain level flight. This artificial pitch-up effect made handling characteristics more consistent with other aircraft at high speeds.

The initial production B.1 model XA889 completed its maiden flight in February 1955 with the original wing configuration and commenced testing in June of that year. In September 1955 at the Farnborough Air Show, Falk piloted the second production B.1 XA890—stationed at Woodford for Ministry of Supply radio trials—and impressed spectators by performing a barrel roll during his second pass in front of the SBAC president's tent. Following two days of demonstration flights, he was summoned by military and civil aviation officials and instructed to cease this "hazardous" maneuver. Equipped with a phase 2 wing, XA889 was handed over in March 1956 to A&AEE for evaluation leading to its initial Certificate of Airworthiness awarded the subsequent month.

(In 1956, VX777 underwent modification with an even larger phase 2(C) wing and was fitted with Olympus 104 engines, becoming the aerodynamic prototype for the Vulcan B.2.)Template:Fix/category

Vulcan B.1 and B.1A

The initial batch of 15 production B.1 Vulcans was equipped with Olympus 101 engines. A significant number of these early units, often finished in bare metal, remained under the ownership of the Ministry of Supply for testing and development roles. Those assigned to RAF duty were delivered to No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), with the first arriving in July 1956. Subsequent aircraft, coated in anti-flash white paint and powered by Olympus 102 engines delivering 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust, began entering operational squadrons from July 1957. During overhaul, Olympus 102 engines were upgraded to the Olympus 104 standard, increasing thrust to 13,500 lbf (60 kN).

Although converting B.1s into B.2s was contemplated, the expense led to abandonment of this plan. Instead, to prolong B.1 serviceability, Armstrong Whitworth modernised 28 surviving aircraft fitted with Olympus 102/104 engines between 1959 and 1963 to the B.1A specification. This upgrade incorporated elements from the B.2 model such as electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, installation of in-flight refuelling receivers, and UHF radio communications. However, these B.1As were not structurally reinforced for low-level flight operations and were all retired by 1968.

Vulcan B.2

As early as 1952, Bristol Aero Engines initiated development on the BOl.6 (Olympus 6) engine variant rated at 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust, but fitting this engine to the B.1 would have reintroduced aerodynamic buffeting issues necessitating wing redesign.

In May 1956, Avro's chief designer Roy Ewans greenlit development of the Vulcan B.2 variant, projected to be approximately the 45th aircraft out of the existing order for 99 units. The B.2 was designed not only to operate at higher altitudes over targets but also to enhance mission flexibility through integration of in-flight refuelling capabilities and support from tanker aircraft. To counter increasingly advanced Soviet air defence systems, ECM technologies were incorporated alongside plans for deploying the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile, then under development. To test these advancements, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was refitted with a larger and thinner phase-2C wing design featuring improved flight control surfaces and Olympus 102 engines; this configuration first flew in August 1957. Several B.1 Vulcans served as testbeds for B.2 developments: XA891 tested BOl.6 (later Olympus 200) engines; XA893 trialled a new AC electrical system; XA895 evaluated ECM including tail cone jammers and tail warning radar; XA903 focused on Blue Steel integration.

Avro Vulcan B.2 XH533 during flight at Farnborough in 1958

The first B.2 production model and the forty-sixth aircraft overall, XH533, took its maiden flight in September 1958 powered by Olympus 200 engines—preceding the final B.1 delivery (XH532) by six months in March 1959. The second B.2 example, XH534, flew in January 1959 featuring production Olympus 201 engines rated at 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust; it was equipped with an in-flight refuelling probe and a bulged ECM tail cone reflecting production standards. Early B.2s initially lacked some features like probes and ECM tail cones but were retrofitted subsequently. The first ten retained narrow engine air intakes reminiscent of the B.1 design; anticipating more powerful engines, deeper air intakes appeared from the eleventh unit (XH557) onward. Many early models remained allocated for testing purposes; notably XH558—the twelfth B.2—became the first delivered to RAF service in July 1960 and also marked the final Vulcan retired in service in 1992.

The twenty-sixth B.2 produced, XL317—the initial aircraft from a February 1956 production order—was the first operational Vulcan capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile; a total of thirty-three were delivered with this capability. After cancellation of Blue Steel Mk II in December 1959 in favour of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile, modifications were made to accommodate Skybolt missiles mounted under each wing. Despite Skybolt’s cancellation in November1962, many aircraft still received or were retrofitted with "Skybolt" fairings. Later Vulcans featured Olympus301 engines delivering 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust; two earlier aircraft (XH557 and XJ784) were re-engined for trials while seven more underwent similar conversions around1963.

The final B.2 unit XM657 was delivered in1965; this variant remained operational until1984. Throughout its service life, continuous upgrades enhanced the type with rapid engine start systems, fuel tanks within bomb bays, wing reinforcements enabling low-level flight endurance—a tactic adopted mid-1960s—improved navigation instruments including terrain-following radar, standardisation around a common weapon (WE.177), and advanced ECM suites. Nine B.2s were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance roles, while six served as airborne tankers. Avro demonstrated an upgraded bomb rack capable of carrying up to thirty one-thousand-pound bombs instead of twenty-one; however this enhancement was never implemented operationally.

During the1982 Falklands conflict, an updated Vulcan B.2 executed a bombing sortie against Port Stanley Airport, covering an approximate range of4,000 miles (6,437 km).

Proposed projects and abandoned designs

Avro Type 718

In 1951, Avro proposed the Type 718, a delta-wing military transport derived from the Type 698, intended to accommodate 80 soldiers or 110 civilian passengers. This design was to be powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines.

Avro Atlantic

Main article: Avro Atlantic

The Avro Type 722 Atlantic, announced in June 1953 as a 1952 concept, was envisioned as a delta-wing airliner capable of carrying 120 passengers, based on the Type 698 platform.

Avro Type 732

Presented in 1956, the Avro 732 was a supersonic evolution of the Vulcan bomber, designed to be powered by eight de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. It retained Vulcan characteristics, distinguishing it from earlier concepts such as the low-level Avro 721 bomber from 1952 and the supersonic stainless steel canard-configured Avro 730 bomber of 1954, which was cancelled in 1957 prior to prototype completion.

Vulcan Phase 6 (Vulcan B.3)

Outline of the initial Vulcan B.3 patrol missile carrier concept

In response to a 1960 Air Staff request for a patrol missile carrier capable of deploying up to six Skybolt missiles on missions lasting up to twelve hours, Avro submitted their Phase 6 Vulcan design in May of that year. This version, designated Vulcan B.3, featured an expanded wing with a span of 121 ft (37 m), increased fuel storage including additional tanks within a dorsal spine, and an upgraded main landing gear to support a maximum takeoff weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg). It was powered by reheated Olympus 301 engines delivering approximately 30,000 lbf (130 kN) thrust each. A revised proposal in October 1960 incorporated a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) fuselage extension forward of the cockpit, accommodating six crew members seated facing forward on ejection seats—including a relief pilot—and proposed aft-fan variants of the Olympus 301 engines.

Vulcan fighter-support variant

Main article: Airborne aircraft carrier

Following Skybolt's cancellation and in light of enhanced Soviet defense capabilities, Avro suggested modifying the Vulcan to carry three Folland Gnat fighters mounted beneath its wings. These Gnats were intended to be deployed within hostile airspace for fighter escort duties and were planned either to return to friendly territory for landing or to rendezvous with the Vulcan for refueling via a dedicated flight-refueling drogue system installed on the bomber.

Export offers

Several nations showed interest in acquiring Vulcans; however, similar to other V-bomber models, no international sales were finalized.

Australia

The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) identified as early as 1954 that the English Electric Canberra was approaching obsolescence. Considerations for replacements included aircraft like the Boeing B-47E, Handley-Page Victor, and Vulcan.

By 1962, political momentum had increased to find a Canberra successor, coinciding with the availability of nimble, supersonic strike platforms such as the North American A-5 Vigilante, BAC TSR-2, and General Dynamics F-111. Had Australia placed an early order for the TSR-2, several V-bombers—including Vulcans—would have been accessible for temporary RAAF deployment; nonetheless, the F-111C was ultimately procured. (Following the TSR-2 cancellation, the UK government nearly adopted a similar path by considering the F-111K.)

Argentina

In the early 1980s, Argentina initiated discussions with the UK to purchase multiple Vulcans. A formal request submitted in September 1981 sought prompt delivery of a 'suitable aircraft.' British officials, albeit hesitant, authorized the export of one unit but clearly indicated no approval had been granted for additional sales. A January 1982 memorandum from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to the Ministry of Defence expressed skepticism about further sales without confirming Argentina’s genuine interest: 'On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands.' Less than three months afterward, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, prompting an immediate British embargo on all military exports.

Design

Avro Vulcan XH558 displayed at the Duxford Airshow in 2012

Interior view of Vulcan's bomb bay

Overview

Although the airframe featured a distinctive and unconventional design, its construction adhered to conventional engineering principles. Apart from the most heavily stressed components, the entire framework was fabricated using standard light alloy materials. The structure was divided into several key sections: the center section, a rectangular framework housing both the bomb bay and engine compartments, bounded by the front and rear spars and wing transport joints; the intakes alongside the central fuselage; the forward fuselage containing the pressurized cabin; the nose section; the outer wings; leading edges; trailing edge of the wings and rear fuselage; and a single swept tail fin equipped with one rudder positioned on the trailing edge.

The pressure cabin accommodated a crew of five arranged over two levels. On the upper deck, the pilot and co-pilot were seated in Martin-Baker 3K (3KS for B.2 models) ejection seats, while on the lower deck, the navigator radar, navigator plotter, and air electronics officer (AEO) faced rearward and exited through the entrance door. Initially, the B35/46 specification included a requirement for a jettisonable crew compartment, but this was later removed. The escape system for the rear crew remained a contentious issue, notably when a practical retrofit proposal was declined. An additional rudimentary sixth seat was located ahead of the navigator radar position; in the B.2 variant, a seventh seat was installed opposite this sixth seat and in front of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer's station could be equipped with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight, while many B.2 aircraft featured a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera in this area to evaluate simulated low-level bombing runs.

Fuel storage consisted of 14 bag tanks distributed as follows: four within the center fuselage above and behind the nosewheel bay, and five housed in each outer wing. These tanks were organized into four groups of nearly equal volume, each typically supplying its corresponding engine, though cross-feed capability existed. The aircraft’s center of gravity was automatically regulated by electric timers that controlled booster pump sequencing across the tanks. B.2 models could carry one or two extra fuel tanks installed in the bomb bay.

Although designed well before considerations such as low radar cross-section or other stealth features were introduced, a 1957 RAE technical report observed that among all aircraft examined up to that time, the Vulcan presented by far the simplest radar reflection profile due to its shape; only one or two components generated significant radar echoes from any given angle, compared with three or more on most other aircraft types. Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith highlighted that "Because of its all-wing configuration, small vertical fin, and buried engines, at certain angles [the Avro Vulcan] was almost invisible to radar." Similarly, radar system analysts Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan identified the Vulcan’s form as contributing to reduced radar returns. Aviation historian Doug Richardson acknowledged that while the Vulcan was challenging to detect on radar, this likely did not provide substantial military advantage. Conversely, electronic warfare expert and former Vulcan AEO Dr Alfred Price asserted that "the Vulcan [...] had a large radar signature."

Colour schemes

Overhead perspective of a Vulcan B.2 exhibiting late RAF markings, displayed statically at RAF Mildenhall in 1984

The initial pair of Vulcan prototypes were coated in a glossy white finish. Early production Vulcan B.1 models emerged from the factory with a natural metal exterior; their nose radomes were divided into black paint on the forward section and silver on the aft portion. Operational Vulcan B.1 aircraft featured an anti-flash white paint scheme complemented by RAF "type D" roundels. Subsequent frontline Vulcan B.1A and B.2 variants maintained a similar appearance but incorporated pale-coloured roundels.

As low-level attack tactics became standard in the mid-1960s, Vulcan B.1As and B.2s adopted a glossy disruptive camouflage pattern of medium and dark green over sea grey on upper surfaces, paired with white undersides and "type D" roundels. Notably, the final 13 Vulcan B.2s (starting from serial XM645) were factory-delivered with this scheme. During the mid-1970s, the camouflage evolved into a matte finish with light aircraft grey undersides and low-visibility roundels applied to Vulcan B.2s. The B.2(MRR) variants received a comparable glossy scheme, but their radome front halves were no longer painted black. Beginning in 1979, ten Vulcans were repainted with an encompassing camouflage of dark sea grey and dark green due to observations during Red Flag exercises in the United States, where defending SAM units noted that the grey undersides became conspicuously visible against terrain during steep banking maneuvers.

Rear crew stations aboard an Avro Vulcan

Avionics

The initial radio equipment fitted to the Vulcan B.1 included two 10-channel Very High Frequency (VHF) transceivers (models TR-1985 and TR-1986), alongside an STR-18 24-channel High Frequency (HF) transceiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A introduced an Ultra High Frequency (UHF) transceiver (ARC-52). Early B.2 radios resembled those of the B.1A, but ultimately incorporated the ARC-52, a combined V/UHF transceiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband HF transceiver (Collins 618T).

Navigation and bombing systems consisted of an H2S Mk9 radar paired with a Mark 1 navigation bombing computer. Mark 2 aircraft were equipped with an upgraded Mark 2 navigation bombing computer, which allowed operations up to 60,000 feet altitude and featured a modified synchro system; however, this increased the minimum operational height to 17,200 feet. When transitioning to low-level flight profiles, the ballistic system from the Mark 1 was retrofitted to restore altitude capability between 7,200 and 50,000 feet.

Additional navigational aids comprised a Marconi radio compass using an Automatic Direction Finder (ADF), GEE Mk3 navigation system, Green Satin Doppler radar for groundspeed and drift angle calculations, radio and radar altimeters, as well as an instrument landing system. In 1964, TACAN replaced GEE on both B.1A and B.2 models. Around 1969, Decca Doppler 72 succeeded Green Satin on the B.2 variant. Continuous position updates were provided by a ground position indicator.

Vulcan B.2 aircraft were eventually outfitted with a free-running dual-gyroscopic heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2 derived from the inertial platform used by the Blue Steel missile integrated during carriage operations. This HRS included a navigator’s heading unit enabling precise heading adjustments via autopilot in increments as small as 0.1 degrees. The B.2(MRR) variant also incorporated LORAN C navigation equipment.

The original electronic countermeasures suite for both B.1A and B.2 included one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive radar warning receiver equipped with four antennas; a Red Steer tail warning radar; and chaff dispensers for countermeasures protection. Most of this equipment was housed within an extended tail cone, with a flat ECM aerial counterpoise plate positioned between the starboard tailpipes. Some Blue Steel-equipped B.2s featured an additional aerial plate between port tailpipes due to signal obstruction caused by the lowered Blue Steel fin on the starboard side. Later upgrades on the B.2 included replacement of one Red Shrimp jammer with an L band jammer; installation of ARI 18146 X-band jammer supplanting Green Palm; improved Red Steer Mk.2 radar warning receiver; infra-red decoy flares; and ARI 18228 passive warning receiver whose aerials formed a squared profile atop the vertical fin.

Controls

Vulcan B.1 XA890 sporting its early silver livery, touching down at Farnborough in September 1955 following Roly Falk's aerobatic demonstration: Notice the lower starboard airbrakes, both inner and outer. The lower outer airbrakes were subsequently removed.

The Vulcan's flight control system utilized a fighter-style control stick alongside a rudder bar, both managing the powered flight surfaces through individual electrohydraulic flying control units. Each surface was equipped with one such unit, except for the rudder, which featured dual units for redundancy, one serving as a backup. The aircraft incorporated artificial control feel and automatic stabilization via pitch and yaw dampers, complemented by an automatic Mach trimmer.

Flight instrumentation on the B.1 model adhered to conventional standards, comprising G4B compasses, Mk.4 artificial horizons, and zero reader flight display instruments. The autopilot system was a Smiths Mk10 unit. In the B.2 variant, these instruments were integrated into the Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), which included dual beam compasses, two director-horizons, and either an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot. Starting in 1966, B.2 aircraft were equipped with the ARI 5959 terrain-following radar developed by General Dynamics, whose outputs interfaced directly with the director-horizons.

Control surfaces on the B.1 featured four inboard elevators and four outboard ailerons. The B.2 replaced these with eight elevons to enhance control effectiveness. Additionally, the Vulcan was outfitted with six electrically actuated airbrakes offering three positions—retracted, medium drag, and high drag—distributed as four on the upper center wing section and two on the lower surface. Initially, four lower airbrakes were installed; however, the two outermost were eliminated prior to operational deployment. A drag parachute was housed within the tail cone to aid in deceleration.

Electrical and hydraulic systems

The primary electrical configuration on B.1 and B.1A models operated at 112 V DC, powered by four engine-driven starter-generators each rated at 22.5 kW. Backup electrical energy came from four 24 V, 40 Ah batteries connected in series to provide 96 V. Secondary power systems included 28 V DC; single-phase 115 V AC at 1600 Hz; and three-phase 115 V AC at 400 Hz, all derived through transformers and inverters from the main supply. The 28 V DC system had an additional backup supplied by a single 24 V battery.

To enhance reliability and efficiency, the B.2's main electrical system transitioned to a three-phase 200 V AC supply at 400 Hz delivered by four engine-driven constant-speed alternators rated at 40 kVA each. Engine starts were accomplished via air-starters powered by a ground-based Palouste compressor. Two primary standby power sources safeguarded against main AC failure: a ram air turbine with a 17 kVA alternator stowed beneath the port wing capable of functioning from high altitudes down to approximately 20,000 feet; and an airborne auxiliary power unit—a Rover gas turbine driving a 40 kVA alternator located within the starboard wing—operable below about 30,000 feet altitude. Secondary electrical supplies included transformer-rectifier units generating 28 V DC and rotary frequency converters providing single-phase 115 V at 1600 Hz.

The switch to an AC-based electrical architecture represented a significant advancement. Each power flying control unit incorporated a hydraulic pump driven by an electric motor—what modern terminology would classify as an electro-hydraulic actuator. As there was no manual reversion capability, complete electrical failure would result in loss of flight control authority. Although standby batteries on the B.1 were designed to sustain flight for twenty minutes under emergency conditions, this proved insufficient in practice; two aircraft (XA891 and XA908) were lost due to such failures.

Hydraulic systems supplied pressure for multiple functions: raising and lowering of landing gear including bogie trim; nosewheel centering and steering; actuation of wheel brakes equipped with Maxarets; operation of bomb bay doors; and on B.2 models only, lowering of the airborne auxiliary power plant air scoop. Three hydraulic pumps driven by engines Nos. 1, 2, and 3 provided system pressure. An electrically powered hydraulic power pack could activate bomb doors and recharge brake accumulators as needed. For emergency extension of landing gear, a compressed gas system (initially air later replaced by nitrogen) was installed as a fail-safe mechanism.

Engine

Main article: Rolls-Royce Olympus

Wing-integrated air intake designed for the Olympus jet engines

The Rolls-Royce Olympus, initially designated the "Bristol BE.10 Olympus", is a two-spool, axial-flow turbojet engine that powered the Vulcan bomber. Each Vulcan housed four engines embedded within the wings, arranged in pairs near the fuselage. The engine's development began in 1947, originally intended to power the Bristol Aeroplane Company’s competing design against the Vulcan.

Gas-flow schematic of an Olympus Mk 101 engine

Before the Olympus engines were ready, the prototype Vulcan VX770 conducted its initial flights using Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 engines producing 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust. These were soon replaced by Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.6 engines delivering 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust. Later on, VX770 served as a test platform for the Rolls-Royce Conway. The second prototype, VX777, first flew powered by Olympus 100 engines rated at 10,000 lbf (44 kN) thrust and was later upgraded with Olympus 101 engines. When VX777 was equipped with a Phase 2C (B.2) wing in 1957, it utilized Olympus 102 engines generating 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust.

Initial B.1 models featured the Olympus 101 engine, while subsequent aircraft were delivered with Olympus 102 units. Upon overhaul, all Olympus 102 engines were converted to Olympus 104 standards and uprated to provide 13,500 lbf (60 kN) thrust. The first B.2 variant was powered by the second-generation Olympus 200 series, which had its design roots dating back to 1952. Later B.2 aircraft were equipped with either the enhanced Olympus 201 or the Olympus 301 engines. The Olympus 201 was redesignated as the Olympus 202 when fitted with a rapid air starter. This engine family was further developed into a reheat (afterburning) variant intended for the cancelled TSR-2 strike/reconnaissance aircraft and the supersonic passenger jet Concorde.

Operating at around ninety percent power, the Vulcan’s engines emitted a distinctive “howl” sound, caused by their air intake configuration and became a popular attraction during public air displays.

Introduction

The Royal Air Force welcomed its inaugural Vulcan B.1, designated XA897, in September 1956, which promptly commenced a global circumnavigation. This journey served as a critical showcase of the aircraft's extensive range and operational potential, while also facilitating diplomatic goodwill visits across multiple nations. Throughout their operational tenure, Vulcans frequently traveled to various countries and remote regions within the Commonwealth, symbolizing military support and protection. Unfortunately, this initial tour ended tragically on 1 October 1956 when XA897 was lost in a fatal crash during a landing attempt at London Heathrow Airport amid adverse weather conditions.

A Vulcan B1A from the Waddington Wing performing at a public airshow in Filton during the 1960s

January 1957 saw delivery of the first two Vulcans to 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), with crew training commencing on 21 February 1957. The first group to complete training, No. 1 Course, graduated on 21 May 1957 and subsequently formed the initial flight of No. 83 Squadron. This squadron became the first to operate the bomber operationally, initially utilizing Vulcans borrowed from the OCU before receiving its own aircraft starting 11 July 1956. By September of that year, multiple Vulcans had been assigned to No. 83 Squadron. The second OCU course also established a flight within No. 83 Squadron, while later trained crews contributed to forming 101 Squadron, which received the final aircraft from the initial batch of 25 by the end of 1957.

To extend Vulcan missions’ endurance and range, in-flight refueling capabilities were introduced beginning in 1959; several Valiant bombers were converted into tanker aircraft to support Vulcan refueling operations. However, maintaining continuous airborne patrols proved impractical, and after the withdrawal of Valiant tankers in 1965, in-flight refueling systems on Vulcans largely fell into disuse.

Vulcans, alongside other V-force bombers, regularly deployed to the Far East, particularly to Singapore, where a fully equipped nuclear weapons storage site was established in 1959. These deployments formed part of the United Kingdom’s commitment to SEATO initiatives and often involved joint exercises aimed at assessing allied defense capabilities. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, plans existed to station three V-bomber squadrons along with 48 Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons in the region; however, this deployment was ultimately not executed. Vulcans conducted training exercises in this theater for both conventional and nuclear roles. In the early 1970s, two Vulcan squadrons were permanently stationed overseas as part of the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus, though these units were withdrawn mid-decade due to escalating Cypriot intercommunal violence.

Royal Air Force Vulcan B.2 preparing for flight on 25 May 1985

The Vulcan also undertook some notable long-distance flights. In June 1961, one aircraft completed an 18,507 km journey from RAF Scampton to Sydney within just over twenty hours, supported by three aerial refuelings. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Vulcans visited the United States for airshows and static exhibitions and participated in the Strategic Air Command (SAC) Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition at venues such as Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, and the former McCoy AFB, Florida. Additionally, Vulcans took part in the extensive Operation Sky Shield exercise in 1961 that tested NORAD's readiness against potential Soviet air assaults; during this exercise, B-47s, B-52s, and a limited number of Vulcans simulated Soviet-style fighter/bomber attacks targeting New York, Chicago, and Washington, D.C., with results remaining classified until 1997. The Vulcan notably evaded USAF interceptor aircraft during the "Giant Voice" exercise held in 1974.

Nuclear deterrent

The Vulcan initially served as the delivery platform for Britain's first independent nuclear weapon, the Blue Danube unguided gravity bomb, marking a significant element of the UK's autonomous nuclear deterrent. This early low-yield fission bomb was developed prior to the United States' first detonation of a hydrogen bomb. Alongside these, U.S.-supplied Mk 5 bombs were made available through the Project E initiative, eventually supplemented by the British tactical nuclear weapon known as Red Beard. Concurrently, the UK pursued its own hydrogen bomb development program. To bridge the interim period before these thermonuclear weapons were operational, V-bombers were outfitted with an Interim Megaton Weapon that utilized the Blue Danube casing but contained the Green Grass warhead—a pure-fission device with an estimated yield of 400 kilotons TNT. This interim weapon was designated Violet Club, with only five units deployed before its warhead was integrated into a more advanced design called Yellow Sun Mk.1.

Subsequently, the Yellow Sun Mk 2 incorporated the British-developed Red Snow warhead, a variant derived from the American W28 thermonuclear device. This marked the first deployment of a British thermonuclear weapon and was carried by both Vulcan and Handley Page Victor bombers. The Valiant bomber retained U.S. nuclear weapons assigned under dual-key control to SACEUR. Additionally, Red Beard weapons were stationed in Singapore for use by Vulcan and Victor aircraft. From 1963 onward, three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s and two squadrons of Victor B.2s were equipped with the rocket-propelled Blue Steel stand-off missile, which carried the 1.1 megaton yield Red Snow warhead.

Operational coordination between RAF Bomber Command and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) began in 1958 under the Single Integrated Operational Plan to ensure comprehensive targeting of Soviet strategic sites; by late 1959, 108 RAF V-bombers had assigned targets within this framework. Starting in 1962, each RAF bomber base maintained one aircraft per squadron armed with nuclear weapons on continuous Quick Reaction Alert (QRA), enabling Vulcans to be airborne within four minutes following an alert—reflecting the estimated warning time between detection of a Soviet nuclear strike launch and its impact on Britain. The closest instance of Vulcan involvement in a potential nuclear confrontation occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 when Bomber Command escalated to Alert Condition 3, a heightened readiness level that was subsequently lowered in early November.

XH558 departing at the 2008 Farnborough Airshow

Plans called for Vulcans to be armed with the Skybolt missile as a replacement for Blue Steel, with Vulcan B.2 models modified on production lines to carry two Skybolt missiles beneath their wings. A proposed B.3 variant featuring an extended wingspan capable of carrying up to six Skybolts was introduced in 1960. However, the cancellation of the Skybolt program in 1962 by U.S. President John F. Kennedy—based on Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara's advice—triggered what became known as the Skybolt Crisis, resulting in retention of Blue Steel as the primary missile armament. Until the Royal Navy assumed nuclear deterrence responsibilities with Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), Vulcan bombers adapted their tactics by flying at high altitude during transit before descending to low levels near targets to evade defenses and deploying parachute-retarded bombs such as the WE.177B.

Before adoption of the WE.177 laydown delivery mode, attack procedures involved a pop-up maneuver to provide sufficient arming time for Yellow Sun bombs—initially climbing to approximately 11,000 feet followed by release during level flight. To further minimize exposure to surface-to-air missiles during weapon release, refined tactics were developed involving climbing at a specific angle and distance from targets; for example, Mk 2 Vulcans equipped with 301 series engines and Yellow Sun bombs would pop up at roughly 18,450 yards from target at a climb angle near 15°, releasing weapons at about 10,500 feet altitude. Since these aircraft were optimized for high-altitude flight, training at low levels limited cruising speeds to around 240 knots with bursts not exceeding 350 knots during simulated attacks to manage airframe fatigue; operational mission profiles planned low-level speeds around 325 knots with maximum speeds reaching up to 375 knots, including one-time dashes up to approximately 415 knots for brief durations likely corresponding to final attack phases.

According to RAF Air Vice Marshal Ron Dick, a former Vulcan pilot, it remains debatable whether such low-level flight profiles would have been effective against Soviet defenses during wartime conditions.

Following introduction of British Polaris submarines and retirement of Blue Steel missiles in 1970, Vulcans continued operating WE.177B tactical nuclear weapons as part of NATO's standing European forces; however, peacetime readiness no longer maintained aircraft on immediate alert within fifteen minutes. Two squadrons were also deployed in Cyprus under Near East Air Force command assigned to Central Treaty Organization strategic strike responsibilities. After phasing out both WE.177B and Vulcan bombers, tactical nuclear roles transitioned primarily to Blackburn Buccaneer, SEPECAT Jaguar, and Panavia Tornado aircraft equipped with WE.177C warheads until their retirement in 1998. While not an exact replacement for Vulcans, the multi-role Tornado interdictor/strike bomber assumed many operational duties previously fulfilled by these iconic bombers.

Conventional role

Vulcan XM597 displayed at the National Museum of Flight, Scotland; visible are the Operation Black Buck insignia and a small Brazilian flag marking the aircraft's internment in Brazil.

Flight crew and engineers gathered around the Vulcan before deployment to Ascension Island

See also: Operation Black Buck

Primarily equipped with nuclear weapons during its service, the Vulcan bomber also fulfilled a secondary role involving conventional ordnance. In traditional combat operations, the Vulcan was capable of carrying up to 21 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs housed within its internal bomb bay. Starting from the 1960s, Vulcan squadrons regularly engaged in training exercises focused on conventional bombing, ensuring crews were proficient not only in nuclear strike tactics but also in conventional attack missions. The bombing approach varied based on anticipated target defences: for targets protected by enemy aircraft and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), a laydown bomb delivery using a retard tail unit (Mk 117) was typical. When facing Soviet SA2 Guideline missile defences, the aircraft could execute a pop-up manoeuvre to approximately 2,500 feet—positioning below the SAM engagement altitude yet above the self-damage threshold for free-fall bombs. Against air defence artillery, attacks might involve popping up to around 8,000 feet to reduce exposure to gunfire while enabling automatic bombing calculations via the Navigation and Bombing System Calc 3.

The Vulcan's sole combat engagements occurred late in its operational life during 1982. In the Falklands War, Vulcans were deployed against Argentine forces occupying the Falkland Islands. These sorties became known as the Black Buck raids, requiring each aircraft to fly approximately 3,889 mi (6,259 km) from Ascension Island to reach Stanley on the islands. To complete these extended missions, Victor tankers provided crucial mid-air refuelling; each mission consumed nearly 1,100,000 imp gal (5,000,000 L) of fuel.

Preparations for the five Vulcans assigned to these raids commenced on 9 April. Modifications included adjustments to the bomb bay, reactivation of the long-unused in-flight refuelling system, installation of an updated navigation system derived from the Vickers VC10, and upgrades to several onboard electronic components. Additionally, new pylons were mounted beneath the wings to carry an ECM pod alongside Shrike anti-radar missiles at wing hardpoints.

Vulcan flying over Ascension Island on 18 May 1982

The initial operation took place on 1 May when a single Vulcan (XM607) conducted a bombing run over Port Stanley, targeting the airfield runway with one direct strike that rendered it unusable for fighter operations. This was promptly followed by Royal Navy British Aerospace Sea Harrier strikes against anti-aircraft installations. Two additional raids involved missile attacks against radar sites while two planned missions were subsequently cancelled. At that time, these sorties represented the longest-distance bombing raids ever undertaken. The Vulcans’ electronic countermeasures effectively jammed Argentine radar systems; their presence in the area significantly lowered the threat posed to other British aircraft operating nearby.

On 3 June 1982, during "Black Buck 6," Vulcan B.2 XM597 from No. 50 Squadron targeted radar installations at Stanley airfield. While attempting mid-air refuelling for its return leg to Ascension Island, a probe failure caused fuel shortage and forced an emergency diversion to Galeão Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro, located in neutral Brazil. Prior to landing, classified documents were discarded along with two remaining AGM-45 Shrike missiles—though one failed to deploy. After issuing a mayday call and escorted by Brazilian Air Force Northrop F-5 fighters, the Vulcan made a low-fuel emergency landing in Rio. Both aircraft and crew remained interned until hostilities ceased nine days later.

Reconnaissance

In November 1973, following the scheduled disbandment of the Victor SR.2-equipped No. 543 Squadron, No. 27 Squadron was re-established at RAF Scampton, taking over the maritime radar reconnaissance mission with Vulcan aircraft. Operating primarily around the waters surrounding the British Isles, including the strategically critical GIUK gap between Iceland and the UK, the squadron conducted high-altitude patrols utilizing the Vulcan’s H2S radar system to track maritime traffic. During peacetime operations, these radar detections could be supplemented by low-level flights for visual confirmation and photographic documentation of targets of interest. In wartime scenarios, Vulcans would delegate target identification to aircraft such as Buccaneers or Canberras and coordinate Buccaneer strikes against enemy vessels. Initially outfitted with several B.2 models, the squadron ultimately operated nine B.2 (MRR) variants—also unofficially referred to as SR.2. These aircraft were adapted for reconnaissance by removing the TFR system along with its associated thimble-shaped radome and installing the LORAN C navigation aid. Visually, they were distinguished by a glossy paint scheme featuring a light grey underside designed to resist sea spray effects.

Additionally, the squadron assumed responsibility for air sampling tasks previously performed by No. 543 Squadron. This role involved flying through airborne contamination clouds to collect fallout from nuclear detonations—both atmospheric and subterranean—for subsequent examination at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment in Aldermaston. Five of the aircraft were equipped with small pylons on otherwise unused Skybolt hardpoints to carry sampling pods adapted from drop tanks. The pods collected samples via filters during flight, complemented by a smaller "localiser" pod mounted on the port wing between the main pylons.

In March 1982, No. 27 Squadron was disbanded at Scampton, with its maritime radar reconnaissance responsibilities transferred to the RAF’s fleet of Nimrod aircraft.

Aerial refuelling function

Although the Vulcan B.2 was scheduled for retirement from RAF service in 1982 following the Falklands War, the conflict had significantly depleted the airframe fatigue life of the RAF's Victor tanker fleet. Despite orders for Vickers VC10 tanker conversions being placed in 1979, and plans to procure Lockheed TriStar tankers after the war, a temporary solution involved converting six Vulcans into single-point refuelling tankers. This conversion entailed removing the electronic countermeasure jammers from the tail ECM bay and installing a single hose drum unit. Additionally, a cylindrical bomb-bay fuel tank was added, increasing fuel capacity to nearly 100,000 lb (45,000 kg).

The authorization to convert these six aircraft was granted on 4 May 1982. Remarkably, only fifty days later, the first tanker variant, XH561, was delivered to RAF Waddington. No. 50 Squadron operated the Vulcan K.2s alongside three Vulcan B.2s to support UK air defence missions until its disbandment in March 1984.

Vulcan Display Flight

Vulcan B.2 flying in formation with the Red Arrows, 2015

Main article: Vulcan Display Flight

Following No. 50 Squadron's disbandment, two Vulcans continued to participate in RAF air shows as part of the Vulcan Display Flight, which was based at Waddington but administered by No. 55 Squadron located at RAF Marham. The display initially featured XL426, which was sold in 1986 and succeeded by XH558, which commenced displays in 1985. The VDF operated XH558 until ceasing flights in 1992 due to Ministry of Defence budget constraints deeming it too expensive to maintain. Both aircraft have been preserved and remain intact; however, a third Vulcan, XH560, held in reserve during the early years, was eventually dismantled.

Engine test platforms

• The prototype VX770 had its Sapphire engines replaced in 1957 with four Rolls-Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofans producing 15,000 lbf (67 kN) thrust each. This aircraft was transferred to Rolls-Royce for use as a Conway engine test bed. It operated with these Conways—the world's first turbofan engines—until its fatal accident in September 1958.
• The initial Vulcan B.1 XA889 served as the flight clearance platform for Olympus models 102 and 104.
• In spring 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA891 was outfitted with four Olympus 200 engines for extensive flight testing but crashed during a routine test flight in July that year.
• Vulcan B.1 XA894 flew equipped with five Olympus engines: four standard Mk.101s plus an additional reheated Olympus 320 mounted beneath the wing intended for the BAC TSR-2 program. This aircraft was destroyed by a ground fire at Filton on December 3, 1962.
• Withdrawn from RAF duty in June 1964, Vulcan B.1 XA896 was slated for conversion into a test bed for the Bristol Siddeley BS100 vectored thrust turbofan designed for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154 project; however, following cancellation of P.1154 in February 1965, XA896 was scrapped before conversion could occur.
• After sustaining a landing accident in 1958 and subsequent rebuild, Vulcan B.1 XA902 replaced VX770 as a Conway engine test bed fitted with four RCo.11 units; later modifications included replacing the two inner Conways with Rolls-Royce Spey engines, first flown in this configuration on October 12, 1961.
• Surplus from Blue Steel missile trials, Vulcan B.1 XA903 was modified similarly to XA894 to conduct flight testing of the Olympus 593 engine intended for Concorde; its maiden flight occurred on October 1, 1966, with testing continuing until June 1971. Beginning April 1973, XA903 also flew equipped with an underslung Rolls-Royce RB.199 turbofan developed for the Panavia Tornado program and was the last B.1 model to fly before retirement in February 1979.
• The Vulcan B.2 XH557 was utilized by British Aircraft Corporation Engines Ltd (BSEL) for development of the Olympus 301 engine and first flew with this larger powerplant in May of 1961 before returning to Woodford in 1964 for refurbishment prior to re-entering RAF service.

Variants

B.1

The original production model. The earliest units featured straight leading edges, which were later upgraded to phase 2 (kinked) wings. Initial finishes were silver, subsequently replaced by anti-flash white. Numerous B.1s underwent conversion to the B.1A standard between 1959 and 1963. The final unmodified B.1 aircraft serving with No. 230 OCU of the RAF were retired by 1966. The last recorded flight of any B.1, specifically an engine testbed XA903, occurred in March 1979.

B.1A

A B.1 variant equipped with an electronic countermeasures (ECM) system housed in an enlarged tail cone similar to that of the B.2. Unlike the B.2, B.1As did not receive significant wing reinforcement for low-altitude operations and were phased out of service during 1966–67.

B.2

An enhanced iteration of the B.1 featuring a larger, thinner wing designated as Phase 2C and powered by Olympus 201-202 or Olympus 301 engines. Electrical systems were upgraded with Automatic Attack Performance Programmer (AAPP) and a Ram Air Turbine (RAT). ECM capabilities mirrored those of the B.1A. Most aircraft received a Thrust-Vectoring Radar (TFR) housed within a nose thimble radome during the mid-1960s. From the mid-1970s onward, new radar warning receiver antennas installed on the tail fin gave it a distinctive squared top profile. Some references mention a Vulcan B.2A designation, reportedly assigned to B.2s equipped with Olympus Mk 301 engines or modified for Blue Steel missile carriage; however, officially only the B.2 designation was used apart from maritime reconnaissance and tanker variants.

B.2 (MRR)

Nine B.2s were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance (MRR), with the TFR removed. Five of these were further altered to perform air sampling missions and featured a distinctive glossy paint scheme with a light grey underside.

K.2

Six B.2 aircraft converted into air-to-air refuelling tankers fitted with a Mark 17 hose drum unit (HDU) semi-recessed in the tail cone and had the TFR removed. Equipped with three bomb-bay drum tanks, this was the sole Vulcan variant capable of emergency fuel jettison.

B.3

A planned but never constructed version designed as a long-endurance missile platform capable of carrying up to six Skybolt missiles for missions lasting up to twelve hours.

Production

Woodford Aerodrome was responsible for assembling a total of 134 production Vulcans, comprising 45 units of the B.1 type and 89 of the B.2 type, with the final aircraft delivered to the RAF in January 1965.

Contract date	Quantity	Variant	Notes
6 Jul 1948	Template:Right	Prototypes	Two prototypes were completed and delivered in August 1952 and September 1953.
14 Aug 1952	Template:Right	Vulcan B.1	Production aircraft first flew on 4 February 1955 and deliveries occurred from June 1955 through December 1957.
30 Sep 1954	Template:Right	Vulcan B.1	Delivered between January 1958 and April 1959.
30 Sep 1954	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Deliveries took place from September 1959 until December 1960.
31 Mar 1955	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Delivered between January and May 1961.
25 Feb 1956	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Delivered from July 1961 through November 1962.
22 Jan 1958	Template:Right	Vulcan B.2	Delivered between February 1963 and January 1965; one unit remained unflown and served as a static test airframe.
Total	Template:Right

Operators

The Vulcan to the Sky Trust's Avro Vulcan XH558

Template:UK

• Aircraft from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment employed for testing and assessment purposes
• Royal Air Force
  • 9 Squadron operated the B.2 variant between 1962 and 1982
  • 12 Squadron flew the B.2 from 1962 until 1967
  • 27 Squadron utilized the B.2 model from 1961 to 1972, then continued with the B.2 (MRR) version from 1973 to 1982
  • 35 Squadron operated the B.2 between 1962 and 1982
  • 44 Squadron flew the B.1/B.1A from 1960 to 1967 and transitioned to the B.2 variant from 1966 to 1982
  • 50 Squadron operated the B.1/B.1A between 1961 and 1966, switched to the B.2 from 1966 to 1984, and flew the K.2 tanker version from 1982 to 1984
  • 83 Squadron, the initial Vulcan squadron, flew the B.1/B.1A from 1957 to 1960 and then the B.2 until 1969
  • 101 Squadron operated the B.1/B1A between 1957 and 1967, followed by the B.2 variant until 1982
  • 617 Squadron flew OB.1/B1A models from 1958 to 1961 and then operated the B.2 until 1981
  • 230 OCU, active from 1956 to 1981, was the first unit to fly the Vulcan, providing conversion and operational training for aircrew
  • Bomber Command Development Unit
• The Vulcan To The Sky Trust maintained G-VLCN (formerly XH558), which remained airworthy until 2015, based at Doncaster Sheffield Airport until June 2023
• Additionally, aircraft were flown under Ministry of Supply/Aviation oversight for experimental purposes by Avro, Bristol Siddeley Engines, Rolls-Royce, and the Blind Landing Experimental Unit (BLEU)

Bases

• RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus: hosted two B.2 squadrons between 1969 and 1975
  • The 9 Squadron relocated here in 1969 from Cottesmore and returned to Waddington in the UK in 1975
  • The 35 Squadron also moved here in 1969 from Cottesmore before returning to Scampton in 1975
• RAF Coningsby: home to three squadrons from 1962 through to 1964
  • The 9 Squadron was formed here in 1962 for B.2 operations before moving to Cottesmore in 1964
  • The 12 Squadron likewise formed here in 1962 with B.2 aircraft and relocated to Cottesmore in 1964
  • The 35 Squadron also began operating here in 1962 with B.2s, moving out in 1964 to Cottesmore

Avro Vulcans of No. 617 Squadron at RAF Cottesmore around 1975

• RAF Cottesmore: hosted three squadrons during the period from 1964 to 1969
  • The 9 Squadron transferred here from Coningsby in 1964 before relocating to Akrotiri in Cyprus in 1969
  • The disbanded in-place squadron, No.12, moved here from Coningsby in '64 and was disbanded three years later in '67
  • The No.35 Squadron moved here in '64 as well, departing for Akrotiri in '69
• RAF Finningley:
  • No.101 Squadron formed here in '57 as a second operational B.1 unit before moving on to Waddington in '61
  • The conversion unit, No.230 OCU, relocated here from Waddington in '61 before transferring again to Scampton in '69
• RAF Scampton: hosted four squadrons at various intervals between '61 and '82
  • No.27 Squadron operated here with B.2s from '61 until disbanding in '72; it reformed a year later flying the B.2 (MRR) until '82
  • No.35 Squadron arrived here after leaving Akrotiri in '75, operating until its disbandment in March '82
  • No.83 Squadron reformed at Scampton in '60 flying B.2s after previously operating as a B.1/B1A squadron at Waddington; it disbanded in '69
  • No.617 Squadron was established here in '58 with the B.1 model and reformed with the B.2 variant in '61 until disbanding in '81
  • The conversion unit No.230 OCU came here from Finningley in '69 until its disbandment in '81
• RAF Waddington: served as home base for several squadrons intermittently between '57 and '84; notably it was both the initial and final operational base for Vulcans
  • No.9 Squadron moved here from Akrotiri in '75 until it was disbanded seven years later
  • No.44 Squadron formed at Waddington in '60 operating B.1/B1A models before converting to B.2s by '66; it was disbanded in '82
  • No.50 Squadron began operations here with B.1/B1A aircraft starting in '61, switched to B.2s by '66, added tanker K variants from '82 until disbanding two years later
  • No.83 Squadron initially formed here as first operational squadron flying the B.1 starting '57; it reformed later that year at Scampton as a B.2 unit
  • No.101 Squadron moved here from Finningley in ‘61 with early variants, converting fully to B.2s by ‘67 before disbanding ‘82
  • No.230 OCU was established at Waddington for crew training beginning ‘56 before relocating first to Finningley ‘61 then finally Scampton ‘70

V-Bomber dispersal airfields

Further information: List of V Bomber dispersal bases

In preparation for a transition to war, V Bomber squadrons were assigned to rapidly deploy four aircraft each to one of 26 designated dispersal airfields spread across the United Kingdom. During the early 1960s, the RAF procured 20 Beagle Basset communication aircraft specifically to transport crews to these dispersal locations. However, the utility of these aircraft was short-lived, as their significance declined following the shift of the primary nuclear deterrent role to the Royal Navy's Polaris (UK nuclear programme).

Accidents and incidents

• Further information: 1956 London Heathrow Avro Vulcan crash
  On 1 October 1956, Vulcan B.1 XA897—the first of its kind delivered—crashed at London Heathrow Airport during Operation Tasman Flight, a goodwill tour to Australia and New Zealand. After executing a ground-controlled approach amid adverse weather conditions, the aircraft impacted terrain approximately 700 yd (640 m) short of the runway as engine thrust was being applied. The collision likely severed the drag links on the main landing gear, forcing it rearward and damaging the trailing edge of the wing. Subsequently, XA897 briefly regained lift. The pilot, Squadron Leader D. R. Howard, and co-pilot Air Marshal Sir Harry Broadhurst, AOC-in-C Bomber Command, ejected safely; however, the remaining four occupants—including a spare pilot and an Avro representative—perished when the aircraft crashed again and disintegrated.

• In 1957, Vulcan B.1 XA892, assigned to the A&AEE at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing, inadvertently exceeded an indicated Mach number (IMN) of 1.04, confirming supersonic flight had been reached. Commanded by Flt Lt Milt Cottee (RAAF) with co-pilot Flt Lt Ray Bray (RAF), the crew aimed for 478 mph (769 km/h) at 0.98 IMN while subjecting the aircraft to a 3 g load factor. After ascending to 35,000 ft (11,000 m), they initiated a descent targeting 27,000 ft (8,200 m) to achieve the set speed. Approaching this altitude, throttles were closed and full up-elevator applied; nevertheless, XA892 unexpectedly pitched nose-down. Cottee considered inverting and rolling upright but instead deployed speed brakes. Despite exceeding their maximum operating speed, these brakes remained intact and decelerated the aircraft, which passed vertical at roughly 18,000 ft (5,500 m) before leveling off near 8,000 ft (2,400 m). No sonic boom was detected, suggesting true Mach 1 was unlikely attained. Post-flight inspection revealed deformation in a rear bulkhead.

The prototype Vulcan VX770 in 1954 featuring its original "pure delta" wing design

• Main article: 1958 Syerston Avro Vulcan crash
  On 20 September 1958, prototype Vulcan VX770 was piloted by a Rolls-Royce test pilot during an engine performance flight that included a flypast at RAF Syerston's Battle of Britain At Home event. After flying along the main runway and initiating a starboard roll with a slight climb, the starboard wing failed structurally as its main spar collapsed. The aircraft entered a dive with flames engulfing the starboard wing before crashing and killing all four crew members onboard along with three individuals in a nearby controllers' caravan. Investigations suggested causes such as pilot error, metal fatigue from air intake vibrations, or insufficient maintenance.

• On 24 October 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA908 from No. 83 Squadron RAF crashed east of Detroit, Michigan, USA following a total electrical failure around 30,000 ft (9,100 m) altitude. Although equipped with an emergency backup system designed to provide power for 20 minutes—enabling diversion to nearby airports—the backup lasted only three minutes due to a short circuit in the service busbar that locked flight controls. En route to Lincoln AFB, Nebraska, XA908 entered a steep dive before impact that created a forty-foot (12 m) crater excavated during wreckage recovery efforts. Despite extensive property damage on the ground and one person hospitalized, no fatalities occurred on land; however, all six crew members died—including the co-pilot who had ejected but whose body was recovered months later from Lake St Clair. The crew were interred at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Trenton, Michigan alongside RAF student pilots who died in WWII accidents nearby.

• On 24 July 1959, Vulcan B.1 XA891 suffered an electrical malfunction during an engine test shortly after takeoff. Warning lights indicated generator failure and loss of busbar voltage; Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison climbed to 14,000 ft (4,300 m), steering clear of populated areas as the Air Electronics Officer attempted repairs. Upon realizing control could not be restored, Harrison ordered rear compartment crew to evacuate and instructed co-pilot ejection prior to ejecting himself successfully. All crew survived—the first complete Vulcan crew escape—and XA891 crashed near Kingston upon Hull.

• On 26 October 1959 at Wellington International Airport (formerly Rongotai Airport), Vulcan B.1 XH498 participated in an airshow marking its opening. Following a "touch-and-go landing" on Runway 34 and preparing for full-stop landing, turbulence and wind shear caused XH498 to touch down short of the runway threshold. The port undercarriage clipped an embankment at Moa Point damaging wing attachments and fuel lines; this ruptured the main landing gear drag link making it unable to support weight. The port wing tip nearly contacted runway surface before lift-off was regained; fuel spilled onto spectators gathered on western apron but pilot actions prevented disaster. XH498 diverted safely to RNZAF Ohakea for emergency landing on nose and starboard gear with minimal further damage. Following repairs by a UK team, it returned to service until October 1967.

• On 16 September 1960 at Bristol Filton Airport, Vulcan B.2 XH557—allocated for Olympus 301 engine testing by Bristol Siddeley Engines—damaged the "Runway Garage." Approaching in poor weather conditions and touching down halfway along the runway, deployment of braking parachute was followed by throttle application when stopping seemed unlikely. Jet blast caused significant property damage including flattening petrol pumps, knocking down streetlights on A38 road, toppling railings, and shattering vehicle windscreens before diverting to St Mawgan; it later returned to Filton.

• On 12 June 1963 in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Vulcan B.1A XH477 from No. 50 Squadron crashed during low-level training when it collided with terrain; all five crew members perished.

• On 11 May 1964 during a demonstration flight from Boscombe Down over Wiltshire, Vulcan B.2 XH535 entered a spin while exhibiting low speed and high descent rate maneuvers. Deployment of landing parachute momentarily halted spin before recurrence; around 2,500 ft (760 m), commander ordered evacuation—pilot and co-pilot ejected successfully whereas rear compartment crew did not likely due to g forces experienced.

• On 16 July 1964 over Anglesey, Vulcan B.1A XA909 experienced mid-air explosion caused by failure of No.4 engine bearing which forced shutdown of engines No.3 and No.4 resulting in extensive starboard wing damage along with reduced control authority and inaccurate airspeed readings; entire crew abandoned aircraft safely and were promptly rescued.

• On 7 October 1964 at RAF Coningsby during an asymmetric power practice approach overshoot maneuver involving two engines at thrust and two idle engines performed by co-pilot under squadron commander supervision unfamiliar with aircraft handling characteristics resulted in loss of control due to asymmetric thrust exceeding rudder capability causing spin and fatal crash killing all aboard.

• On 25 May 1965 Vulcan B.2 XM576 crash-landed at Scampton shortly after delivery leading to write-off within one year.

• On 11 February 1966 during low-level exercise in Brecon Beacons near summit of Fan Bwlch Chwyth (elevation 1,978 ft (603 m)), Vulcan B.2 XH536 from IX SQN Cottesmore Wing impacted terrain at approximately 1,910 ft (580 m) altitude amid snowy hilltops with cloud base near 1,400 ft (430 m), resulting in fatalities among all crew members.

• On 6 April 1967 at RAF Scampton during takeoff run carrying Blue Steel missile training round, Vulcan B.2 XL385 suffered catastrophic engine failure caused by Olympus 301 HP turbine disc malfunction leading to fire that destroyed aircraft; all onboard including an Air Training Corps cadet escaped unharmed.

• On 30 January 1968 at RAF Cottesmore following bomb-bay overheat indication and subsequent return attempt Vulcan B.2 XM604 lost control during overshoot maneuver resulting in fatalities among rear crew; both pilots ejected with captain surviving due to parachute entanglement with power lines; cause traced to Olympus 301 LP turbine disc failure.

• On 7 January 1971 at Wingate (County Durham), Vulcan B.2 XM610 from No.44 Squadron suffered blade fatigue failure in No.1 engine causing fuel system damage and fire; crew evacuated safely before aircraft crashed harmlessly.

• On 14 October 1975 at RAF Luqa Malta during emergency landing approach Vulcan B.2 XM645 from No.9 Squadron undershot runway causing left undercarriage loss and airframe damage; aircraft broke up over Żabbar town resulting in pilot/co-pilot ejections but deaths of five other crew members plus one civilian killed by falling debris and multiple injuries among local population.

• On 17 January 1977 near Spilsby Lincolnshire during practice emergency descent Vulcan B.2 XM600 from No.101 Squadron experienced bomb-bay fire warning followed by No.2 engine fire warning; captain shut down affected engine while flames observed near deployed ram air turbine (RAT). Fire intensified leading captain to order evacuation—rear crew escaped around 6,000 ft (1,800 m), co-pilot ejected subsequently followed by captain at approximately 3,000 feet (910 m) as control was lost; investigation identified arcing on RAT electrical terminals igniting adjacent fuel pipe.

• On 12 August 1978 during unauthorized pre-display flight at Naval Air Station Glenview Illinois USA prior to Chicago Meigs Field display Vulcan B.2 XL390 from No.617 Squadron executed low-level run below approximately 100 ft (30 m) followed by improperly performed wingover maneuver causing stall and fatal crash killing entire crew.

• On 3 June 1982 returning from Falklands mission Vulcan XM597 suffered probe breakage while attempting aerial refueling leaving insufficient fuel for Ascension Island base necessitating diversion to Rio de Janeiro after discarding classified material over Atlantic Ocean; Brazilian Air Force escorted aircraft leading to diplomatic negotiations resulting in seven-day detention before release under condition that XM597 did not participate further in conflict.

• On 28 May 2012 while initiating takeoff roll at Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Vulcan B.2 XH558 lost both port-side engines due to ingestion of silica gel desiccant bags inadvertently left inside air intake post-maintenance causing immediate destruction of first engine followed by secondary damage to second engine through debris ingestion; effective fire suppression prevented further harm allowing safe aborted takeoff with no airframe or control system damage; XH558 resumed flight operations on 3 July 2012 after repairs completed.

Surviving aircraft

Main article: List of surviving Avro Vulcans

XH558 during its inaugural public flight demonstration following restoration on 5 July 2008

A number of Vulcan bombers remain preserved in museums across the United Kingdom and North America, including the United States and Canada. Among these, the Avro Vulcan XH558 (registration G-VLCN), known as the Spirit of Great Britain, served as a Royal Air Force display aircraft within the Vulcan Display Flight until 1993. After being grounded, it underwent a comprehensive restoration led by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and returned to flight status for civilian demonstrations from 2008 through 2015 before being retired again due to technical maintenance concerns. Post-retirement, XH558 is planned to stay at its home base at Doncaster Sheffield Airport where it will operate as a taxiable exhibit. This operational role is shared by two other preserved Vulcans: XL426 (G-VJET), stationed at Southend Airport, and XM655 (G-VULC), located at Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield. The B.2 variant XJ823 is displayed at the Solway Aviation Museum near Carlisle Lake District Airport. Meanwhile, XM607 remains under restoration at RAF Waddington, where it has acted as a gate guardian since retirement. Additionally, XM594 is exhibited at the Newark Air Museum in Newark, Nottinghamshire, England.

Specifications (B.1)

Vulcan B.2

Comparison of Variants

Variant Specifications

	B.1	B.1A	B.2	B.2 (MRR)	K.2
Wingspan	99 ft 5 in (30.30 m)		111 ft 0 in (33.83 m)
Length	97 ft 1 in (29.59 m)	105 ft 6 in (32.16 m) [99 ft 11 in (30.45 m) excluding probe]
Height	26 ft 6 in (8.08 m)		27 ft 1 in (8.26 m)
Wing area	3,554 sq ft (330.2 m2)		3,964 sq ft (368.3 m2)
Maximum takeoff weight	167,000 lb (76,000 kg) 185,000 lb (84,000 kg) (operational requirement)		204,000 lb (93,000 kg)
Cruising speed	Mach 0.86 indicated
Maximum speed	Mach 0.95 indicated		Mach 0.93 indicated (Mach 0.92 with Olympus 301 engines)	Mach 0.93 indicated	Unknown
Service ceiling	56,000 ft		Between 45,000 ft and 60,000 ft
Electrical system	112 V direct current (DC)		115/200 V alternating current (AC), Three-phase electric power at 400 Hertz
Emergency electrical system	Battery-powered		Ram air turbine and Auxiliary power unit (Airborne Auxiliary Power Plant)
Engines	4 × Rolls-Royce Olympus Bristol Olympus 101, 102, or 104 variants	4 × Bristol Olympus 104	4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series, including model 301	4 × Bristol Siddeley Olympus 200-series engines
Fuel capacity (main tanks)	9,280 imp gal (11,140 US gal; 42,200 L) / 74,240 lb (33,670 kg) Jet fuel (avtur)		9,260 impgal USgal l /
Fuel capacity (bomb bay tanks)	None		Template:Cvt 0 - 1990 impgal USgal l / Template:Cvt 0 - 15920 lb	Template:Cvt 1990 impgal USgal l / Template:Cvt 15920 lb	Template:Cvt 2985 impgal USgal l / Template:Cvt 23880 lb
Powered flying controls	1 × rudder (duplex), plus four elevators and four ailerons		colspan ="3" style ="text-align:center;" | 1 × rudder (duplex), with eight elevons
Armament	colspan ="2" style ="text-align:center;" | Either one free-fall nuclear bomb or 21 conventional bombs weighing	style ="text-align:center;" | One Blue Steel missile or one free-fall nuclear bomb or 21 conventional bombs of	colspan ="2" style ="text-align:center;" | None

Noteworthy Media Appearances

Main article: Avro Vulcan in fiction

See also

Bibliography

• Baxter, Alan (1990). Olympus: The First Forty Years. Derby, UK: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust. ISBN 978-0-9511710-9-7.
• Blackman, Tony (2007). Vulcan Test Pilot: My Experiences in the Cockpit of a Cold War Icon. London, UK: Grub Street. ISBN 978-1-904943-88-4.
• Braybrook, Roy (1982). Battle for the Falklands: Air Forces. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0-85045-493-X.
• Brookes, Andrew (2011). Victor Units of the Cold War: Osprey Combat Aircraft: 88. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-339-3.
• Brookes, Andrew; Davey, Chris (2009). Vulcan Units of The Cold War (Osprey Combat Aircraft: 72). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-297-4.
• Bull, Stephen (2004). Encyclopedia of Military Technology And Innovation. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-557-8.
• Bulman, Craig (2001). The Vulcan B.Mk2 From a Different Angle. Bishop Auckland, UK: Pentland Press Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85821-899-1.
• Buttler, Tony (2003). British Secret Projects: Jet Bombers Since 1949. Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland. ISBN 1-85780-130-X.
• Darling, Kev (1999). Avro Vulcan. North Branch, USA: Speciality Press. ISBN 1-58007-023-X.
• Darling, Kev (2007). Avro Vulcan, Part One (RAF Illustrated). Vale of Glamorgan, Wales, UK: Big Bird Aviation Publication. ISBN 978-1-84799-237-6.
• Frawley, Gerard (2002). The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002–2003. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
• Gallop, Alan (2005). Time Flies: Heathrow at 60. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-3840-4.
• Gibson, Chris (2011). Vulcan's Hammer: V-Force Aircraft and Weapons Projects Since 1945. Crowborough, UK: Hikoki Publications. ISBN 978-19021-0917-6.
• Halpenny, Bruce Barrymore (2006). Avro Vulcan: The History and Development of a Classic Jet. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Aviation. ISBN 1-84415-426-2.
• Hamilton-Paterson, James (2010). Empire of the Clouds: When Britain's Aircraft Ruled the World. London, UK: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-24794-3.
• Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea. London, UK: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-3398-4.
• Jackson, A. J. (1990). Avro Aircraft Since 1908, 2nd Edition. London, UK: Putnam Aeronautical Books. ISBN 0-85177-834-8.
• Jackson, Robert (1984). Avro Vulcan. Somerset, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 0-850-59630-0.
• Jackson, Robert (1987). Avro Vulcan. Somerset, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1852600101.
• {{cite book

  	   "Jefford", "C.G.", "RAF Squadrons: A Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912", "Airlife Publishing", "Shrewsbury", "Shropshire", "UK", "2001", "1–84037–141–2"}}

• {{cite book "Jenkins", "Dennis R.", "B–1 Lancer: The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed", "McGraw-Hill", "New York", "US", "1999", "0–07–134694–5"}}
• {{cite book "Jones", "Barry", "V-Bombers: Valiant, Victor and Vulcan", "The Crowood Press", "Ramsbury", "UK", "2007", "978–1–86126–945–4"}}
• {{cite book "Kingsley", Simon; Quegan, Shaun; Understanding Radar Systems; SciTech Publishing; Raleigh; North Carolina; USA; 1999; ISBN 1–891121–05–7}}
• {{cite book "Lake", Alan; Flying Units of the RAF: The Ancestry, Formation and Disbandment of all Flying Units since 1912; Airlife Publishing; Shrewsbury; Shropshire; UK;1999; ISBN 1–84037–086–6 }}
• {{cite book Laming Tim The Vulcan Story:1952–2002 Silverdale Books Enderby Leicester United Kingdom ISBN 1856057011 }}
• {{cite book Polmar Norman Bell Dana One Hundred Years of World Military Aircraft Naval Institute Press Annapolis Maryland USA ISBN 1591146860 }}
• {{cite book Price Alfred Blackman Tony Edmondson Andrew Avro Vulcan Manual: An Insight into Owning Restoring Servicing and Flying Britain's Legendary Cold War Bomber (Owner's Workshop Manual) Haynes Sparkford Somerset United Kingdom ISBN 184425831X }}
• {{cite book Richardson Doug Stealth Warplanes Zenith Imprint North Branch Minnesota USA ISBN 0760310513 }}
• {{cite book Seddon J Goldsmith E L Intake Aerodynamics (Aiaa Education Series) American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Reston Virginia USA ISBN 1563473615 }}
• {{cite book Segell Glen Wither or dither British Aerospace Collaborative Procurement with Europe Glen Segell Publishers London United Kingdom ISBN 1901414035 }}
• {{cite book Stephens Alan Power Plus Attitude Ideas Strategy and Doctrine in the Royal Australian Air Force19211991 AGPS Press Canberra Australia ISBN 0644243880 }}
• {{cite book Vulcan B.Mk.1A Pilot's Notes (AP4505C-PN) Air Ministry London United Kingdom1961 }}
• {{cite book Vulcan B.Mk.2 Aircrew Manual (AP101B190215) Air Ministry London United Kingdom1984 }}
• {{cite book WansbroughWhite Gordon Names With Wings The Names & Naming Systems of Aircraft & Engines Flown by the British Armed Forces18781984 Airlife Publishing Ltd Shrewsbury United Kingdom ISBN 1853104914 }}
• {{cite book White Rowland Vulcan607 The Epic Story of the Most Remarkable British Air Attack since WWII Bantam Press London United Kingdom ISBN 0593053915 }}
• {{cite magazine Willis David Avro Vulcan survivors Aeroplane Volume35 Issue4 April2007 }}
• {{cite book Wilson Stewart Lincoln Canberra & F111 in Australian service Aerospace Publications Weston Creek Australia ISBN 0958797838 }}
• {{cite book Wynn Humphrey RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces Origins Roles and Deployment19461969 The Stationery Office London United Kingdom ISBN 0117728330 }}

Further reading

• Arnold, Lorna. Britain and the H-Bomb. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. ISBN 0-333-94742-8.
• Chesnau, Roger and Ray Rimell. Avro Vulcan B Mk 2 (Aeroguide 29). Ringshall, Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-946958-39-4.
• Dodds, Colin. "Flying the Tin Triangle." Aeroplane, Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007.
• Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company. Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2004. ISBN 1-86126-651-0.
• McLelland, Tim. The Avro Vulcan: A Complete History. Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing Limited, 2007. ISBN 978-0-85979-127-4.

External links

• Avro Vulcan Bomber Tribute Page Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
• Vulcan to the Sky
• Vulcans in Camera
• Vulcan history
• Vulcan Restoration Trust Archived 18 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
• Video of Roland Falk rolling a Vulcan at Farnborough in 1955 Archived 22 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Vulcan Test Pilot Roly Falk history
• Building the Vulcan Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine a 1957 Flight article
• the Vulcan Story Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Flight article of 1958
• The Virtues of the Avro Vulcan Archived 5 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine a 1954 AVRO advertisement for the Vulcan in Flight magazine
• The autobiography of Bill Wood a Vulcan test pilot Archived 28 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine